| 1. |
- Andres, B., et al.
(author)
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Using Micro-Scale and Solid Material Data for Modelling Heat Transfer in Stone Wool Composites Under Heat Exposures
- 2021
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In: Fire Technology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0015-2684 .- 1572-8099. ; 57:4, s. 1541-1567
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Research review (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Modelling capabilities have drastically improved in the last decade. However, in most of the cases the fire response of building elements is predicted by fitting input material properties to the models in order to match test data. This paper presents models developed to predict the unexposed side temperature of stone wool layered composites with stainless steel or gypsum claddings exposed to severe heat conditions. The suitability of material thermal properties from literature and reaction kinetic parameters obtained at bench scale (e.g. thermogravimetric analysis, bomb calorimeter, slug test) to model composites at different heat exposures is studied. Modelling efforts include: (1) the combustion of the organic content of the wool, (2) diffusion term to account for the passage of hot air through the wool, (3) calcination reactions in the gypsum plasterboard, (4) energy released by burning of the paper lining of gypsum plasterboard. The models are compared against experimental data. Results show that material thermal properties of gypsum plasterboard and stone wool retrieved from the literature and obtained at a bench scale provide accurate model predictions under different heat exposures. Furthermore, reactions schemes for the dehydration of gypsum plasterboard and organic content combustion in the wool also provide good modelling results. Further analysis is necessary to understand the environmental conditions inside the layered composites in fire exposures in order to achieve better modelling predictions.
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| 2. |
- Arias, Silvia, et al.
(author)
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A Study on Evacuation Behavior in Physical and Virtual Reality Experiments
- 2022
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In: Fire Technology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0015-2684 .- 1572-8099. ; 58:2, s. 817-849
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Comparing results obtained in Virtual Reality to those obtained in physical experiments is key for validation of Virtual Reality as a research method in the field of Human Behavior in Fire. A series of experiments based on similar evacuation scenarios in a high-rise building with evacuation elevators was conducted. The experiments consisted of a physical experiment in a building, and two Virtual Reality experiments in a virtual representation of the same building: one using a Cave Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE), and one using a head-mounted display (HMD). The data obtained in the HMD experiment is compared to data obtained in the CAVE and physical experiment. The three datasets were compared in terms of pre-evacuation time, noticing escape routes, walking paths, exit choice, waiting times for the elevators and eye-tracking data related to emergency signage. The HMD experiment was able to reproduce the data obtained in the physical experiment in terms of pre-evacuation time and exit choice, but there were large differences with the results from the CAVE experiment. Possible factors affecting the data produced using Virtual Reality are identified, such as spatial orientation and movement in the virtual environment.
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| 3. |
- Arias, Silvia, et al.
(author)
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Virtual Reality Evacuation Experiments on Way-Finding Systems for the Future Circular Collider
- 2019
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In: Fire Technology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0015-2684 .- 1572-8099. ; 55, s. 2319-2340
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Evacuation times can be shortened in fire scenarios if people choose appropriate routes. Way-finding systems can be used to aid this process, thus their effectiveness needs to be evaluated. In the present study, the way-finding evacuation systems of the Future Circular Collider (FCC) of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) are investigated as its evacuation design presents several challenges from the fire safety perspective. To perform a comparison of different evacuation design solutions, a set of Virtual Reality (VR) experiments involving a total of 111 participants was performed. VR was used because the FCC facility is not built yet, and it allows for high experimental control and cost-effectiveness for comparisons of way-finding systems. The VR experiments reproduced a hypothetical fire emergency in which participants’ egress behaviour was investigated. Three scenarios were represented, each of them adopting different evacuation safety concepts and way-finding systems. Different installations were included in the scenarios, such as scenario (1) flashing lights, scenario (2) static or dynamic signage (i.e. active and dissuasive signage indicating the direction towards or away from the danger) and scenario (3) a robot placed on a monorail on the vault of the tunnel, able to localize people in the tunnel and provide way-guidance information. Results show that the combination of red flashing lights at the exits, dynamic signage and a robot equipped with green flashing lights yielded the highest compliance to the way-finding intent of the system (92.6% compliance vs 62.9% and 77.5% for scenarios 1 and 2 respectively).
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| 4. |
- Arvidson, Magnus
(author)
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Large-Scale Water Spray and Water Mist Fire Suppression System Tests for the Protection of Ro-Ro Cargo Decks on Ships
- 2014
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In: Fire technology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0015-2684 .- 1572-8099. ; 50:3, s. 589-610
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- This paper summarises a series of large-scale fire suppression tests conducted to simulate a fire in the trailer of a heavy goods freight truck on a roll-on roll-off (ro-ro) cargo deck. The tests were conducted with a traditional deluge water spray system as well as a deluge high-pressure water mist system. Parameters such as the water discharge density, the system operating pressure, the nozzle K-factor and whether the fire was fully exposed to the water spray or shielded were varied. The total and convective heat release rate of the fire was measured in order to determine the fire suppression and fire control capabilities of the tested systems. Test results indicate that a water discharge density of at least 10 mm/min is necessary to provide fire suppression of a fire in a heavy goods freight truck, whilst 5 mm/min would provide fire control. Furthermore, the test results indicate that a high-pressure water mist system would require higher flow rates as compared to a traditional water spray system in order to provide fire control.
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| 5. |
- Arvidson, Magnus, et al.
(author)
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The Development of Automatic Sprinkler System Concepts for Maritime Vehicle Carriers
- 2024
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In: Fire technology. - : Springer. - 0015-2684 .- 1572-8099.
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Closed ro-ro spaces on maritime vehicle carriers are usually protected by a total-flooding carbon dioxide system. Such systems have many benefits, for example that there are no residues that can adversely affect the protected objects (in this case thousands of vehicles) and the agent is electrically non-conductive. However, there could be a considerable time delay from the start of a fire until the carbon dioxide system is discharged. Experience has shown that this delay time can cause significant fire damage and jeopardize the performance of the system. Within the EU funded LASH FIRE project, design and installation guidelines for supplementary automatic water-based fire sprinkler systems were developed. An important design feature is that the system automatically activates at an early stage of a fire. This would allow more time to fight the fire manually or to safely evacuate the space and discharge the CO2 system when the fire is controlled to one or a few vehicles instead of at a time when it has escalated in size. The work was partly based on a comprehensive literature review that identified relevant standards and information applicable to the design of automatic fire sprinkler and deluge water spray systems. Large-scale fire tests verified that the suggested system designs were able to provide control of realistic vehicle fires, including fires in passenger cars and a freight truck.
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| 6. |
- Arvidson, Magnus
(author)
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The Response Time of Different SprinklerGlass Bulbs in a Residential Room FireScenario
- 2018
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In: Fire technology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0015-2684 .- 1572-8099. ; 54:5, s. 1265-1282
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The response time of fire sprinklers is essential for their performance,especially in applications where life safety protection is desired. The earlier the sprin-kler activates, the smaller the size of the fire. Most commercial residential sprinklersare fitted with 3 mm, 68C glass bulbs. However, thinner sprinkler glass bulbs withlower operating temperatures are available. The aim of this study was to determinethe response time—and the corresponding heat release rate—of different glass bulbsin a residential room fire scenario. A series of tests were conducted inside a compart-ment measuring 3.66 m by 3.66 m having a ceiling height of 2.5 m. The compartmentwas either enclosed or had two walls removed to provide a more ventilated scenario.A propane gas burner was positioned at one of the corners. The mass flow rate ofthe gas was controlled such that either ‘slow’, ‘medium’ or ‘fast’ fire growth rate sce-narios were simulated. In each test, nine Response Time Index (RTI) and operatingtemperature combinations were tested. Each test was replicated three times. In addi-tion, two commercial fire detectors were tested. The results show that the fire is con-siderably smaller upon activation with a combination of a low RTI and a lowoperating temperature, as compared to the 3 mm, 68C glass bulb typically used forresidential sprinklers. The operating temperature proved to have a larger impact onthe results than the RTI. The heat from the fire was typically detected by the firedetectors prior to the activation of the sprinkler glass bulbs, especially for the ‘slow’and ‘medium’ fire growth rate scenarios.
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| 7. |
- Arvidson, Magnus, et al.
(author)
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Water Spray Fire Suppression Tests Comparing Gasoline-Fuelled and Battery Electric Vehicles
- 2023
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In: Fire technology. - : Springer Nature. - 0015-2684 .- 1572-8099.
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The increased use of electric vehicles has raised a concern about the performance efficiency of water spray fire suppression systems (often denoted “drencher systems”) typically installed on ro–ro cargo and ro–ro passenger ships. A test series was conducted involving testing of two pairs of geometrically similar gasoline-fuelled and battery electric vehicles in test conditions as equivalent as possible. During testing, key parameters such as the heat release rate, the gas temperature above the vehicle and the surface temperature of target steel sheet screens at the sides of the vehicle were measured. Fire ignition was arranged in such a way that the gasoline fuel or the battery pack was involved at the initial stage of the fire. It is concluded that fires in the two types of vehicles are different but have similarities. However, a fire in a battery electric vehicle does not seem to be more challenging than a fire in a gasoline-fuelled vehicle for a drencher system designed in accordance with current international recommendations
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| 8. |
- Bisschop, Roeland, et al.
(author)
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Handling Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles: Preventing and Recovering from Hazardous Events
- 2020
-
In: Fire technology. - : Springer. - 0015-2684 .- 1572-8099. ; 56, s. 2671-2694
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The demand for lithium-ion battery powered road vehicles continues toincrease around the world. As more of these become operational across the globe,their involvement in traffic accidents and incidents is likely to rise. This can damagethe lithium-ion battery and subsequently pose a threat to occupants and respondersas well as those involved in vehicle recovery and salvage operations. The project thispaper is based on aimed to alleviate such concerns. To provide a basis for fire safetysystems to be applied to damaged EVs, hazards have been identified and means forpreventing and controlling lithium-ion battery fires, including preventive measuresduring workshop and salvage activities were studied. Tests were also performed withfixed fire suppression systems applying suppressant inside traction batteries whichshowed to improve their safety.
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| 9. |
- Blomqvist, Per, et al.
(author)
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Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Quantified in Large-Scale Fire Experiments
- 2012
-
In: Fire technology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0015-2684 .- 1572-8099. ; 48:2, s. 513-528
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- A number of large-scale fire experiments with detailed quantitative analysisof polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) including PAH congener distributionhave been conducted by SP. This data is reviewed here and is further assessed withregard to toxicity applying a Toxic Equivalency Factor (TEF) model for estimationof cancer potential. The PAH yield data from the large-scale fire experiments is alsocompared to emission factors from other combustion sources. The study shows thatfull-scale fire experiments with different products exhibit a large variation in totalPAH yields. Fires with products containing flame retardants were shown to producethe highest yields and generally a more toxic mixture of PAHs than fires with nonflameretarded products. The distribution of individual PAH congeners is generallyquantitatively dominated by low molecular weight PAHs, whereas a small number ofmedium to high molecular weight PAHs are most important in determining the toxicityof the PAH mixture. The large-scale fire experiments indicate that fires normallyproduce orders of magnitudes higher yields compared to, e.g. modern residentialcombustion devices. The relative distribution of individual PAHs, which determinesthe toxicity of the PAH mix, is similar for the fires and open burning data studied, inthat benzo(a)pyrene and dibenz(a,h)anthracene dominate the toxicity of the mix as awhole.
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| 10. |
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