| 1. |
- Johansson, Lasse, et al.
(författare)
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Model for leisure boat activities and emissions – implementation for the Baltic Sea
- 2020
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Ingår i: Ocean Science. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1812-0792 .- 1812-0784. ; 16:5, s. 1143-1163
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The activities and emissions from leisure boats in the Baltic Sea have been modeled in a comprehensive approach for the first time, using a new simulation model leisure Boat Emissions and Activities siMulator (BEAM). The model utilizes survey data to characterize the national leisure boat fleets. Leisure boats have been categorized based on their size, use and engine specifications, and for these subcategories emission factors for NOx, PM2.5, CO, non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), and releases of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) from antifouling paints have been estimated according to literature values. The modeling approach also considers the temporal and spatial distribution of leisure boat activities, which are applied to each simulated leisure boat separately. According to our results the CO and NMVOC emissions from leisure boats, as well as Cu and Zn released from antifouling paints, are significant when compared against the emissions originating from registered commercial shipping in the Baltic Sea. CO emissions equal 70 % of the registered shipping emissions and NMVOC emissions equal 160 % when compared against the modeled results in the Baltic Sea in 2014. Modeled NOx and PM2.5 from the leisure boats are less significant compared to the registered shipping emissions. The emissions from leisure boats are concentrated in the summer months of June, July and August and are released in the vicinity of inhabited coastal areas. Given the large emission estimates for leisure boats, this commonly overlooked source of emissions should be further investigated in greater detail.
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| 2. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
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Antifouling paints leach copper in excess – study of metal release rates and efficacy along a salinity gradient
- 2020
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Ingår i: Water Research. - : Elsevier BV. - 0043-1354 .- 1879-2448. ; 186
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Antifouling paints are biocidal products applied to ship and boat hulls in order to prevent the growth and settlement of marine organisms, i.e. fouling. The release of biocides from the surface of the paint film act to repel or poison potential settling organisms. Currently, the most commonly used biocide in antifouling paints is cuprous oxide. In the EU, antifouling products are regulated under the Biocidal Products Regulation (BPR), which states that the recommended dose should be the minimum necessary to achieve the desired effect. For antifouling products, the dose is measured as the release rate of biocide(s) from coating. In this study, the release rates of copper and zinc from eight different coatings for leisure boats were determined through static exposure of coated panels in four different harbors located in Swedish waters along a salinity gradient ranging from 0 to 27 PSU. The results showed the release rate of copper to increase with increasing salinity. Paints with a higher content of cuprous oxide were also found to release larger amounts of copper. The coatings’ ability to prevent biofouling was also evaluated and no significant difference in efficacy between the eight tested products was observed at the brackish and marine sites. Hence, the products with high release rates of copper were equally efficient as those with 4 – 6 times lower releases. These findings suggest that current antifouling paints on the market are leaching copper in excess of the effective dose in brackish and marine waters. Additionally, the results from the freshwater site showed no benefit in applying a copper-containing paint for the purpose of fouling prevention. This indicates that the use of biocidal paints in freshwater bodies potentially results in an unnecessary release of copper. By reducing the release rates of copper from antifouling paints in marine waters and restricting the use of biocidal paints in freshwater, the load of copper to the environment could be substantially reduced.
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| 3. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
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Are silicone foul-release coatings a viable and environmentally sustainable alternative to biocidal antifouling coatings in the Baltic Sea region?
- 2022
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Ingår i: Marine Pollution Bulletin. - Stockholm : Elsevier BV. - 0025-326X .- 1879-3363. ; 184
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- To combat unwanted fouling on immersed hulls, biocidal antifouling coatings are commonly applied to vessels trafficking the Baltic Sea. Here, the efficacy, environmental sustainability and market barriers of silicone foul-release coatings (FRCs) was assessed for this region to evaluate their viability as replacements for biocidal coatings. Coated panels were exposed statically over a 1 year period at three locations in the Baltic Sea region to assess the long-term performance of a biocide-free FRC and two copper coatings. The FRC was found to perform equally well or significantly better than the copper coatings. Even though most silicone FRCs on the market are biocide-free, a review of the literature regarding toxic effects and the identity and environmental fate of leachables shows that they may not be completely environmentally benign, simply for the lack of biocides. Nonetheless, FRCs are substantially less toxic compared to biocidal antifouling coatings and their use should be promoted. © 2022 The Authors
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| 4. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
-
Assessment of efficacy and excess toxicity of antifouling paints for leisure boats - A guide for copper-based antifouling paints intended for use in the Baltic Sea region
- 2021
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The regulation of antifouling paints in the European Union falls under the Biocide Products regulation (BPR, Regulation (EU) 528/2012) and consists of two assessments: an environmental risk assessment (ERA) and an efficacy assessment. The efficacy assessment is key for the placement of an antifouling paint on the market as a biocidal product must be shown to be effective to gain approval. At the same time, the BPR states clearly that biocidal products should not be excessively toxic, i.e. release active substances to the environment in excess of the minimum necessary to achieve the desired effect. According to the BPR guidance document, an acceptable efficacy for antifouling paints is obtained if a static panel test is able to demonstrate a surface coverage of macrofouling below 25% on the treated surface when the control has at least 75% coverage. Guidance on how to determine whether a paint is excessively toxic is however lacking from the document. Objective and method The overall objective of this report was to compile the current knowledge on the efficacy of antifouling products and the minimum dose of copper. Regional pleasure craft marina scenarios for emission estimation were recently introduced for the harmonised environmental risk assessment of antifouling paint, whereby marine EU waters have been divided into four regions (Baltic, Baltic Transition, Atlantic and Mediterranean). This report focuses solely on the Baltic, Baltic Transition and Atlantic regions and all results were related to these three regions. A review was conducted where both peer-reviewed scientific articles and previously unpublished data relating to fouling pressure and efficacy assessments of copper and biocide-free antifouling paints in these regions were compiled. Even though the Atlantic region is included in the assessment it must be emphasised that the data for this region is exclusively collected from the northern Swedish west coast (Skagerrak). Most of the data were obtained from the EU BONUS-project CHANGE (Changing antifouling practices for leisure boats in the Baltic Sea) which contained both fouling and efficacy assessment of copper coatings in marinas during up to four consecutive years (2013–2016). Additional studies from 2018 and 2020 were also included in the compilation. The efficacy of a total of 10 copper coatings (cuprous oxide or copper powder) available on the Swedish market could thus be assessed at as many as 18 locations across 6 different years. Fouling pressure The minimum necessary dose will depend on the fouling pressure (i.e. the intensity and type of fouling organisms) of the region where the paint is intended for use. The fouling pressure, measured as the surface coverage of macrofouling on static control panels in the Baltic Sea region, was found to exceed 25% at all studied marinas (17 locations) and years (4 years). However, in 20% of the cases, the macrofouling coverage was below 75%, indicating that the brackish Baltic Sea does not confine well to the current requirements for efficacy testing. The fouling pressure was highest at the Atlantic site but varied considerably between sites in the Baltic and Baltic Transition regions. Also, high interannual variation in macrofouling cover was observed for several of the marinas in these two regions. The two most northern sites of the Baltic region were dominated by mainly soft fouling indicating a lower need for biocidal coatings. No general patterns of fouling pressure could however be concluded for the three regions. Efficacy of copper paints The efficacy assessments of 10 commercial copper-based coatings showed acceptable results at 82 – 100% of evaluated locations. Products currently on the Swedish market are thus highly efficient, with macrofouling coverages on static panels well below the 25% macrofouling criteria. A combination of high fouling pressure and low surface seawater temperatures were often found to coincide at the few instances where some copper paints failed to meet the set efficacy criteria. The lower temperatures may have acted to slow the release of copper, resulting in some paints failing to withstand the presiding high fouling pressure. Hence, both biotic (fouling pressure) and abiotic factors (temperature) may influence the results of an efficacy assessment in the Baltic Sea region, in particular for low-leaching copper paints. Efficacy of biocide-free paints The efficacy of a fouling release coating (i.e. silicone coating) was assessed during a 5-months long field experiment in 2020 at one test site in the Baltic and two test sites in the Atlantic region. The result showed the control panels deployed in the Atlantic region to be heavily fouled with macrofouling (100% coverage) but the fouling release coating had no macrofouling and was as effective as two copper-based coatings for professional use. Thus, silicone paints present an effective biocide-free antifouling strategy already available to boat owners. Excessive toxicity Efficacy test results offer limited support for the evaluation of excessive toxicity, especially if the test is carried out in a region other than that of intended use. An evaluation of excessive toxicity is therefore proposed based on field release rates. Copper release rates of 2 and 7 μg/cm2/day were found to be sufficient to prevent all macrofouling settlement in the Baltic and Baltic Transition regions, respectively. Copper paints with field release rates in excess of these values can thus be considered excessively toxic. In absence of field release rates, a model is proposed for their estimation. The use of the model is however limited to hard and polishing paint only, due to lack of data for self-polishing paints. Gradient panels with paint stripes of increasingly diluted paint (i.e. decreasing amounts of biocide(s)) could also be used for the assessment of excess toxicity. Ideally, this assessment should be coupled with environmental release rate data to justify the need for the dose delivered by a given product. Considerations specific to the Baltic Sea region The combined findings of this report show that the conditions of the Baltic Sea region require specific consideration. The release rate of copper needed to deter macrofouling is lower in the Baltic than the Baltic Transition and Atlantic regions. The evaluation of efficacy and excessive toxicity should therefore be carried out in the marine region of intended use. Variability in fouling pressure and environmental parameters both between locations and years, even within the same marine region suggest however that care should be taken when choosing the test location. Additionally, the duration of the efficacy test should reflect product use. A period of 5 – 7 months of exposure is therefore suggested.
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| 5. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
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Copper as a HELCOM core indicator
- 2021
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Part 1: Sources, environmental concentrations and state assessments in the Baltic Sea Part 2: EQS derivation for copper in sediment
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| 6. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
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Identification of commercial and recreational vessels coated with banned organotin paint through screening of tin by portable XRF
- 2019
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Ingår i: Journal of Hazardous Materials. - : Elsevier BV. - 1873-3336 .- 0304-3894. ; 362, s. 107-114
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The most effective biocide used historically in antifouling paints is tributyltin (TBT). However, due to its extreme toxicity to non-target organisms and its persistence in the environment, the use of TBT and other organotin compounds (OTCs) was restricted in EU on leisure boats and ships in 1989 and 2003, respectively. Nevertheless, studies worldwide still report TBT to be released from both ships and leisure boats. Here, we present a new application for a field portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF) used for screening for organotin paint through measurements of tin (Sn) on leisure boats and ships. Measurements on ships built after the restrictions showed concentrations of up to 68 μg Sn/cm2, likely due to impurities of inorganic Sn, as shown through chemical analysis of 21 organotin-free paints. A threshold value of 100 μg Sn/cm2is suggested, where exceedance indicates presence of OTCs. Screening with the XRF method showed 10% of the commercial vessels (n = 30) and 23–29% of leisure boats (n = 693, investigated in this and in a previous study) to hold concentrations exceeding 100 μg Sn/cm2. The XRF technique presented here provides a useful tool for quick screening and identification of vessels holding banned organotin paint.
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| 7. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
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In situ release rates of Cu and Zn from commercial antifouling paints at different salinities
- 2018
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Ingår i: Marine Pollution Bulletin. - : Elsevier BV. - 0025-326X .- 1879-3363. ; 127, s. 289-296
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Antifouling paints are environmentally risk assessed based on their biocidal release rates to the water phase. In situ release rates of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were derived for five commercial paints in two recreational marinas with different salinities (5 and 14 PSU) using an X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometer (XRF). Salinity was found to significantly affect the Cu release, with twice the amount of Cu released at the higher salinity, while its influence on the Zn release was paint-specific. Site-specific release rates for water bodies with salinity gradients, e.g. the Baltic Sea, are therefore necessary for more realistic risk assessments of antifouling paints. Furthermore, the in situ release rates were up to 8 times higher than those generated using standardized laboratory or calculation methods. The environmental risk assessment repeated with the field release rates concludes that it is questionable whether the studied products should be allowed on the Swedish market.
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| 8. |
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| 9. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986-
(författare)
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Occurrence and environmental risk assessment of antifouling paint biocides from leisure boats
- 2019
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The use of biocidal antifouling (AF) paints is the most common way to prevent fouling on leisure boat hulls. The main aim of this thesis was to investigate the pathways through which AF biocides, past and present, may reach the environment through their use on leisure boats and to improve the risk assessment of biocidal AF paints intended for amateur use. The work presented focuses mainly on the Baltic Sea, with emphasis on regulation and risk assessment procedures in Sweden. A new method was developed for the quantification of nowadays banned organotin compounds (OTCs) such as tributyltin (TBT) in paint flakes (paper I). OTCs were detected in hull paint scrapings from three countries around the Baltic Sea. Thus, historic layers of organotin paint on leisure boats may constitute as sources of TBT to the marine environment. Total tin was identified as an indicator for the presence of OTCs on boat hulls, allowing for quicker identification of vessels in need of remediation. Nowadays, most AF paints tend to contain high amounts of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn). The use of AF paints was shown to cause exceedance of guideline values for these two metals in soil, sediment and water in various investigated marinas (papers II and IV). The pollution of boatyard soil was linked to hull maintenance activities carried out over unprotected ground (paper II). AF paints were also found to impact both the concentration and speciation of dissolved Cu and Zn in two Baltic Sea marinas, with increased concentrations as well as an increased proportion of bioavailable species as a function of an increased number of moored boats (paper IV). A new method utilizing X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) was used to derive the release rates of Cu and Zn in the field for five commercially available AF paints for amateur use (paper III). Salinity and paint properties were found to be important parameters affecting the release. The in situ release rates were also found to exceed those derived with current standardized release rate methods. Given the high release rates, none of the studied paints should have been approved for the Swedish market. This finding likely explains the exceedance of guideline values for dissolved Cu and Zn in investigated Baltic Sea marinas (paper IV). In conclusion, there is a need for caution when authorizing new biocides as the phasing out of banned substances can be a lengthy process due to their continued presence in historic paint layers. Additionally, paint-specific release rates determined under conditions reflecting the intended use of the product should be used for a more realistic environmental risk assessment of AF paints.
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| 10. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
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Quantification of Cu and Zn in antifouling paint films by XRF
- 2021
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Ingår i: Talanta. - : Elsevier BV. - 0039-9140. ; 223
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Methods to determine the release of biocides (e.g. copper) and substances of concern (e.g. zinc) from antifouling paints are required for both the development of efficient products and their environmental risk assessment. To date, there are only two standardized methods available to estimate such release rates, but their reliability has been put into question. An alternative method, allowing determination of environmental release rates in the field of metallic or organometallic biocides by X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), has been developed and applied in recent years. In this study, the potential for standardization of the XRF method is investigated through evaluation of its accuracy, precision and transferability between instruments. Accurate quantification of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) in μg cm−2, despite differences in chemical composition, was demonstrated through comparison of calibration regression slopes for ten different antifouling paints and confirmed through the measurement of validation samples. Universal antifouling paint calibration curves are proposed for the determination of Cu and Zn in thin paint films, with a prediction uncertainty of around ±130 μg/cm2 for both metals. The transferability of the method to another instrument was also demonstrated. For both analyzers, concentrations of validation samples were within 5% of those determined through wet chemical analysis. Pre-requisites and recommendations for the application of the method as well as its applicability to both short- and long-term release rate studies in the field are also presented and discussed.
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