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Sökning: WFRF:(Liedberg Bo Professor)

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1.
  • Fyrner, Timmy (författare)
  • Synthesis of Orthogonally Functionalized Oligosaccharides for Self-assembled Monolayers and as Multimodal Tools in Chemical Biology
  • 2012
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • This thesis covers different topics in the field of synthetic organic chemistry combined with the field of surface science and glycobiology.First, the text presents a series of orthogonally protected oligosaccharides (tri-, penta-, and heptasaccharides) of varying length and structures, which are synthesized with the aim of developing novel heterobifunctional biocompatible cross-linkers. Successful conjugation with different chemical handles is also described and used to illustrate the potential implementation of defined carbohydrate based compounds have potential use in biosensing applications. The results of incubation experiments using living cells indicate that the linker is incorporated into cell surfaces and enriched in microdomains.Second, synthesis of various saccharide-terminated alkane thiols immobilized on gold surfaces is reported. The protein adsorption and antifouling characteristics of these surfaces were investigated using model proteins and the common fouling organisms, Ulva linza and Balanus amphitrite.Further, oligo(lactose)-based thiols (di-, tetra-, and hexasaccharides) were synthesized and immobilized on gold nanoparticles to investigate how well these rigid, rod-like oligosaccharides can stabilize such nanoparticles for future use in constructing hybrid nanoparticles.Finally, the thesis describes synthesis of a systematic series of oligo(ethylene) glycols possessing either hydrogen- or methyl-terminated groups. Investigation of the fundamental characteristics of self-assembled monolayers, will give important insights into the design of protein repellant surfaces.
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2.
  • Selegård, Robert, 1934- (författare)
  • Polypeptide functionalized gold nanoparticles for bioanalytical applications
  • 2014
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • Detection strategies that allow for simple, rapid, cost efficient and sensitive monitoring of proteins and their interactions with biomolecules are of great importance in drug development and diagnostics. This thesis describes the development of bioanalytical applications based on the tunable self-assembly of gold nanoparticles functionalized with a de novo designed polypeptide. Strategies for protein affinity sensing and for detection of several fundamentally important biological processes have been investigated, including Zn2+-mediated coordination between polypeptides and low molecular weight chelants and protease and phosphatase activity.A Zn2+ responsive synthetic polypeptide designed to fold into a helix-loop-helix motif and dimerize into a four-helix bundle has been used to control the stability and self-assembly of gold nanoparticles. This polypeptide has a high negative net charge at neutral pH as a consequence of its many glutamic acid residues, efficiently preventing folding and dimerization due to charge repulsion. Zn2+ coordination provides a means to trigger folding and dimerization at neutral pH. The polypeptide can be readily attached to gold nanoparticles via a cysteine residue in the loop region, retaining its folding properties and responsiveness to Zn2+. The polypeptide functionalized gold nanoparticles display excellent colloidal stability but aggregate reversibly after addition of millimolar concentrations of Zn2+. Aggregates are dense with a defined interparticle distance corresponding to the size of the four-helix bundle, resulting in a distinct red shift of the localized surface plasmon resonance band.Three completely different strategies for colorimetric biosensing have been developed, all being based on the same responsive hybrid nanomaterial. In the first strategy a synthetic receptor was co-immobilized on the gold nanoparticles together with the Zn2+ responsive polypeptide. Protein analyte binding to the receptor could be detected as this interaction sterically prevented aggregation induced by Zn2+. In the second strategy the reduction in colloidal stability caused by specific proteolytic cleavage of the immobilized polypeptide was exploited to monitor the enzymatic activity. The third strategy utilized the sensitivity of the system to small variations in Zn2+ concentration. The presence of low molecular weight chelants was found to influence the mode of aggregation, both by sequestering Zn2+ and through the formation of ternary complexes involving the polypeptides, which prevented dimerization and thus aggregation. This approach was further developed into a generic concept for phosphatase detection exploiting the different affinity of enzyme substrates and reaction products for Zn2+.The flexibility of the different detection schemes enables detection of a large number of analytes by exploiting the tunable stability of the nanoparticles and the possibilities to effectively decouple the recognition event and the nanoparticle stability modulation.
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3.
  • Martinsson, Erik, 1983- (författare)
  • Nanoplasmonic Sensing using Metal Nanoparticles
  • 2014
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • In our modern society, we are surrounded by numerous sensors, constantly feeding us information about our physical environment. From small, wearable sensors that monitor our physiological status to large satellites orbiting around the earth, detecting global changes. Although, the performance of these sensors have been significantly improved during the last decades there is still a demand for faster and more reliable sensing systems with improved sensitivity and selectivity. The rapid progress in nanofabrication techniques has made a profound impact for the development of small, novel sensors that enables miniaturization and integration. A specific area where nanostructures are especially attractive is biochemical sensing, where the exceptional properties of nanomaterials can be utilized in order to detect and analyze biomolecular interactions. The focus of this thesis is to investigate plasmonic nanoparticles composed of gold or silver and optimize their performance as signal transducers in optical biosensors. Metal nanoparticles exhibit unique optical properties due to excitation of localized surface plasmons, which makes them highly sensitive probes for detecting small, local changes in their surrounding environment, for instance the binding of a biomolecule to the nanoparticle surface. This is the basic principle behind nanoplasmonic sensing based on refractometric detection, a sensing scheme that offers real-time and label-free detection of molecular interactions. This thesis shows that the sensitivity for detecting local refractive index changes is highly dependent on the geometry of the metal nanoparticles, their interaction with neighboring particles and their chemical composition and functionalization. An increased knowledge about how these parameters affects the sensitivity is essential when developing nanoplasmonic sensing devices with high performance based on metal nanoparticles. 
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4.
  • Bui, Lan, 1981- (författare)
  • Synthesis of Substituted Alkanethiols Intended for Protein Immobilization : Chelate Associated Photochemistry (CAP)
  • 2009
  • Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • The first and main part of this thesis is focused on the design and synthesis of photo-activableand metal chelating alkanethiols. Chelate associated photochemistry (CAP) is a novel conceptof combining two well-known protein (ligand) immobilization strategies to obtain a sensorsurface of covalently bound ligand with defined orientation. This includes nitrilotriacetic acid(NTA) which is used to capture and pre-orientate histidine-tagged proteins to the sensorsurface, followed by UV activation of a neighboring photo-crosslinking agent, benzophenone(BP), to covalently bind the ligand in this favorable orientation. Our results (paper 1) indicatethat up to 55% more activity of the ligand is achieved with the CAP concept compared to theactivity of the randomly oriented ligand (immobilized only by BP). This also yields a surfacethat is more robust compared to if only NTA is used. The photo cross-linking withbenzophenone (BP) adduct is limited to a distance range of 3Å, it is therefore favorable tocapture the ligand before reacting with surface bound BP-adduct. The surface consists of anexcess of ethylene glycols (known for its protein-repellent properties) to prevent non-specificprotein binding, thereby increase the specificity of the sensor surface. With this obtainedsurface chemistry we hope to contribute to the development of large-scale screening systemsand microarrays based on His-tagged labeled biomolecules. This will be used in a number ofapplications such as proteomics-related applications, including drug discovery, the discoveryof lead compounds and characterization of protein-protein interactions.The second part of this thesis describes the effect of the synthetic N-(3-oxododecanoyl)-Lhomoserinelactone (30-C12-HSL) on eukaryotic cells. 30-C12-HSL is a natural occurringsignal substance in the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and this signal molecule isinvolved in the regulation of bacterial growth. Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been consideredas a common cause of infections in hospitals, especially in patients with compromisedimmune systems. Since the 30-C12-HSL can diffuse freely cross the cell membranes, it isexpected to have influence on the host cell behaviour. Herein, we study how the eukaryoticcells respond to the bacterial signal molecule, 30-C12-HSL. Our results (paper 2) indicatethat 30-C12-HSL disrupt the adherens junctions in human epithelial cells. The disruption iscaused by a hyperphosphorylation of the adherens junction proteins (protein complexbetween epithelial tissues). This suggests the bacterial signals are sensed by that the host cells.
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5.
  • Ekblad, Tobias, 1979- (författare)
  • Hydrogel coatings for biomedical and biofouling applications
  • 2010
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • Many applications share a substantial and yet unmet need for prediction and control of interactions between surfaces and proteins or living cells. Examples are blood-contacting biomaterials, biosensors, and non-toxic anti-biofouling coatings for ship hulls. The main focus of this thesis work has been the synthesis, characterization and properties of a group of coatings, designed for such applications. Many types of substrates, particularly plastics, were coated directly with ultrathin, hydrophilic polymer coatings, using a newly developed polymerization method initiated by short-wavelength ultraviolet light.The thesis contains eight papers and an introduction aimed to provide a context for the research work. The common theme, discussed and analyzed throughout the work, has been the minimization of non-specific binding of proteins to surfaces, thereby limiting the risk of uncontrolled attachment of cells and higher organisms. This has mainly been accomplished through the incorporation of monomer units bearing poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) side chains in the coatings. Such PEG-containing “protein resistant” coatings have been used in this work as matrices for biosensor applications, as blood-contacting inert surfaces and as antibiofouling coatings for marine applications, with excellent results. The properties of the coatings, and their interactions with proteins and cells, have been thoroughly characterized using an array of techniques such as infrared spectroscopy, ellipsometry, atomic force microscopy, surface plasmon resonance and neutron reflectometry. In addition, other routes to fabricate coatings with high protein resistance have also been utilized. For instance, the versatility of the fabrication method has enabled the design of gradients with varying electrostatic charge, affecting the protein adsorption and leading to protein resistance in areas where the charges are balanced.This thesis also describes a novel application of imaging surface plasmon resonance for the investigation of the surface exploration behavior of marine biofouling organisms, in particular barnacle larvae. This technique allows for real-time assessment of the rate of surface exploration and the deposition of protein-based adhesives onto surfaces, a process which was previously very difficult to investigate experimentally. In this thesis, the method was applied to several model surface chemistries, including the hydrogels described above. The new method promises to provide insights into the interactions between biofouling organisms and a surface during the critical stages prior to permanent settlement, hopefully facilitating the development of antibiofouling coatings for marine applications.
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6.
  • Nygren, Patrik, 1979- (författare)
  • Structural and Functional Studies of De Novo Designed Peptides at Surfaces
  • 2008
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • The work presented in this thesis deals with the structural and functional properties of peptides at surfaces. The interaction of peptides with surfaces is an ever so common occurrence in our every day life, from the bug squashed on the windshield of our car to the barnacle on our boat, and from the blood plasma used in the hospital to the proteins in our cells. The effect these occurrences has on our lives is diverse, the bug is annoying whereas the barnacle settlement of ship hull is costly for marine transportation, the blood plasma contains components of vital importance for our immunological defense system and the proteins in our cells are crucial for regulatory processes and life.One part of this thesis, performed as a part of the EU-founded project AMBIO, deals with the concept of marine biofouling. A number of short peptides have been designed, synthesized, and used to investigate their effect on the settlement on marine biofoulers, such as the Ulva linza algae and the Navicula diatom, on template surfaces coated with thin layers of these molecules. The surfaces have been thoroughly investigated with respect of their physio-chemical properties before and after submersion in artificial seawater and ultimately in suspensions containing the organisms. The most interesting results were obtained with an arginine-rich peptide coating that when introduced to Ulva linza zoospores, displayed extensive settlement, compared to reference surfaces. In addition, a large fraction of the settled spores had an abnormal morphology.The other part of this thesis is focused on designed peptides that when adsorbed on a negatively charged surface adopts a well-defined secondary structure, either α-helical or β-sheet. Precisely placed amino acids in the peptides will strongly disfavor structure in solution, primarily due to electrostatic repulsion, but when the peptides are adsorbed on the negatively charged surfaces, they adopt a well-defined secondary structure due to ion pair bonding. These interactions have been thoroughly investigated by systematic variations of the side-chains. In order to determine the factors contributing to the induced structure, several peptides with different amino acid sequences have been synthesized. Factors that have been investigated include 1) the positive charge density, 2) distribution of positive charges, 3) negative charge density, 4) increasing hydrophobicity, and 5) incorporating amino acids with different helix propensities. Moreover, pH dependence and the effect of different interaction partners have also been investigated. It has also been shown that the system can be modified to incorporate a catalytic site that is only active when the helix is formed. This research will increase our understanding of peptide-surface interactions and might be of importance for both bionanotechnology and medicine.
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7.
  • Tai, Feng-I, 1982- (författare)
  • Surface characterization and manipulation of polyampholytic hydrogel coatings
  • 2019
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • This thesis is dedicated to building up fundamental knowledge about polyampholytic hydrogels, which are developed in our group for anti-fouling purposes. Charge-balanced polymers, where positive and negative charges balance each other, have emerged as interesting candidates for many applications in materials science. We have prepared charge-balanced materials by forming thickness gradients of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes, and use these as model systems for a systematic investigation of the materials and their responses to environmental changes. These hydrogel gradients were sequentially grafted from substrates via surface-initiated photografting and photopolymerization (SIPGP) of cationic and anionic polyelectrolytes. At some thickness ratios, these form a charge-balanced system where the net surface charge is zero, and with certain similarity to zwitterionic systems. The surface charge of the hydrogels is the principal parameter regulating non-specific protein adsorption, and among other things, we demonstrate that the position of the fouling-resistant charge-neutral region can be manipulated upon pH changes. The chemical compositions of the hydrogel gradients were characterized by microscopic infrared spectroscopy. Optical analysis by spectroscopic ellipsometry and imaging surface plasmon resonance were used to monitor the swelling of the hydrogel films, and protein adsorption onto these in real-time. Surface forces, i.e. the interactions with the hydrogels from an intermolecular perspective, which are related mainly to electrostatic and steric forces, were probed by direct force measurement using atomic force microscopy. Force curves were used to determine the surface charge distribution over the hydrogels, and to indicate the correlation between surface charge and protein adsorption. In the later work, hydrogel gradients were patterned as arrayed spots. Their thicknesses and surface roughness provide further information about the polymer structure and provides a basis for relating ellipsometric swelling profiles to thicknesses as obtained by atomic force microscopy. Finally, it is demonstrated how charged hydrogel films can be used as spacers to tune the optimum distance between silver nanoparticles and fluorophores for metal-enhanced fluorescence (MEF). The aim of this work is to understand polyampholytic hydrogels from various perspectives: surface charges and their distribution, the polymer structure, and surface interactions. The knowledge and experience obtained contribute to the general understanding of zwitterionic materials, and to the development of anti-fouling coatings, optical sensing platforms and other applications of charge-balanced hydrogels.
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8.
  • Wickham, Abeni (författare)
  • Multifunctional Biomimetic Scaffolds Tailored for Cardiac Regeneration
  • 2015
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • Nature has had millions of years to perfect the structural components of the human body, but has also produced the dysfunctions that result in the cancers and diseases, which ruin that perfection. Congenital heart defects, and myocardial infarction lead to scarring that remodels heart muscle, decreasing the contractility of the heart, with profound consequences for the host. Regenerative medicine is the study of strategies to return diseased body parts to their evolutionarily optimum structure.Nature has had millions of years to perfect the structural components of the human body, but has also produced the dysfunctions that result in the cancers and diseases, which ruin that perfection. Congenital heart defects, and myocardial infarction lead to scarring that remodels heart muscle, decreasing the contractility of the heart, with profound consequences for the host. Regenerative medicine is the study of strategies to return diseased body parts to their evolutionarily optimum structure. Cells alone cannot develop into functional tissue, as they require mechanical support and chemical signals from the extracellular matrix in order to play the correct role in the body. In order to imitate the process of tissue formation optimized by nature, scaffolds are developed as the architectural support for tissue regeneration. To mimic the elasticity and strength seen in the heart muscle is one of the major scientific conundrums of our time. The development of new multifunctional materials for scaffolds is an accepted solution for repairing failing heart muscle. In this thesis I accept the notion that endogenous cardiac cells can play a major role in addressing this problem, if we can attract them to the site of defect or injury and make them proliferate. I then proceed to show how improving on a commonly used synthetic polymer was used to develop two new biomaterials.Polycaprolactone (PCL) fibers and sheets were studied for their ability to adsorb proteins based on their surface energies. We found that although the wettability of the PCL might be similar to positive controls for cell attachment, the large differences in surface energies may account for the increased serum protein adsorption and limit cell adhesion. The effect of fiber morphology was then investigated with respect to proliferation of mesenchymal stem cells and cardiac progenitor cells. PCL was also mechanically enhanced with thiophene conjugated single walled carbon nanotubes (T-CNT); where small concentrations of the T-CNT allowed for a 2.5 fold increase in the percentage of elongation, while retaining the proliferation profile of the cardiac progenitor cells. Although PCL is a well-known implant material, the ability to attract and adhere cardiac cells was limited. Therefore we sought to develop new biomaterials with fiber morphologies similar to the muscle fiber of the heart, but with surface energies similar to positive controls for cell attachment. Poly[2,3-bis-(3-octyloxyphenyl)quinoxaline-5,8-diyl-alt-thiophene-2,5-diyl] (TQ1) was then explored as a ribbon fiber and compared to collagen with embryonic cardiac cells, in vitro, and then implanted into rats for in vivo long term evaluations. The cardiac cells had a preferential adhesion to the TQ1 fibers, and in vivo, the fibers attracted more blood vessels and regrew functional tissue compared to the collagen controls. TQ1 fibers had the added ability to emit light in the near infrared region, which would allow for consistent tracking of the material. Although this material offered the morphological preference for the cardiac cells, it does not degrade and nor did it offer electrical conductivity. The heart muscle is an electrically active muscle. The dead tissue that is formed in the ischemic area loses its ability to  transfer the electrical signals. Hence, I have then developed collagen fibrous materials with silver nanowires to help store and inject charges that would be generated during the contraction of the heart muscle. The silver nanowires served to help carry charges whilst providing resistance to bacterial growth on the material. The collagen/silver nanowires composites were mechanically apt for the culture of embryonic cardiac cells.
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9.
  • Aili, Daniel, 1977- (författare)
  • Polypeptide-Based Nanoscale Materials
  • 2008
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • Self-assembly has emerged as a promising technique for fabrication of novel hybrid materials and nanostructures. The work presented in this thesis has been focused on developing nanoscale materials based on synthetic de novo designed polypeptides. The polypeptides have been utilized for the assembly of gold nanoparticles, fibrous nanostructures, and for sensing applications.The 42-residue polypeptides are designed to fold into helix-loop-helix motifs and dimerize to form four-helix bundles. Folding is primarily driven by the formation of a hydrophobic core made up by the hydrophobic faces of the amphiphilic helices. The peptides have either a negative or positive net charge at neutral pH, depending on the relative abundance of Glu and Lys. Charge repulsion thus prevents homodimerization at pH 7 while promoting hetero-dimerization through the formation of stabilising salt bridges. A Cys incorporated in position 22, located in the loop region, allowed for directed, thiol-dependent, immobilization on planar gold surfaces and gold nanoparticles. The negatively charged (Glu-rich) peptide formed homodimers and folded in solution at pH < 6 or in the presence of certain metal ions, such as Zn2+. The folding properties of this peptide were retained when immobilized directly on gold, which enabled reversible assembly of gold nanoparticles resulting in aggregates with well-defined interparticle separations. Particle aggregation was found to induce folding of the immobilized peptides but folding could also be utilized to induce aggregation of the particles by exploiting the highly specific interactions involved in both homodimerization and hetero-association. The possibility to control the assembly of polypeptide-functionalized gold nanoparticles was utilized in a colorimetric protein assay. Analyte binding to immobilized ligands prevented the formation of dense particle aggregates when subjecting the particles to conditions normally causing extensive aggregation. Analyte binding could hence easily be distinguished by the naked eye. Moreover, the peptides were utilized to assemble gold nanoparticles on planar gold and silica substrates.Fibrous nanostructures were realized by linking monomers through a disulphide-bridge. The disulphide-linked peptides were found to spontaneously assemble into long and extremely thin peptide fibres as a result of a propagating association mediated by folding into four-helix bundles.
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10.
  • Andersson, Olof, 1978- (författare)
  • Imaging surface plasmon resonance
  • 2008
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • The central theme of this thesis is the use of imaging Surface Plasmon Resonance (iSPR) as a tool in the characterization of surfaces with laterally varying properties. Within the scope of this work, an instrument for iSPR analysis was designed and built. SPR is a very sensitive technique for monitoring changes in optical properties in the immediate vicinity of a sensor surface, which is very useful in biosensing and surface science research. We have employed SPR in the Kretschmann configuration, wherein surface plasmons are excited by means of an evanescent field arising from total internal reflection from the backside of the sensor surface. In iSPR, the signal is the reflectivity of TM-polarized light which is measured using an imaging detector, typically a CCD camera. Advantages of this technique include extreme surface sensitivity and, because detection is done from the backside, compatibility with complex samples. In addition, SPR is a non-labeling technique, and in imaging mode, a lateral resolution in the µm range can be attained.The imaging SPR instrument could be operated in either wavelength interrogation mode or in intensity mode. In the former case, the objective is to find the SPR wave-length, λSPR, which is the wavelength at which the reflected intensity is at a minimum. In intensity mode, a snapshot of the intensity reflectance is taken at a fixed wavelength hand incidence angle.In biosensor science, the use of an imaging technique offers a major advantage by enabling parallelization and thereby increasing throughput. We have, for example, used iSPR in biochemical interaction analysis to monitor immobilization and specific binding to protein and synthetic polypeptide micro arrays. The primary interest has been the study of soft matter surfaces that possess properties interesting in the field of biomimetics or for applications in biosensing. Specifically, the surfaces studied in this thesis include patterned self-assembled monolayers of thiolates on gold, a graft polymerized poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) based hydrogel, a dextran hydrogel, and a polyelectrolyte charge gradient. Our results show that the PEG-based hydrogel is very well suited for use as a platform in protein immobilization in an array format, owing to the very low unspecific binding. In addition, well defined microarray templates were designed by patterning of hydrophobic barriers on dextran and monolayer surfaces. A polypeptide affinity microarray was further designed and immobilized on such a patterned monolayer substrate, in order to demonstrate the potential of analyte quantification with high sensitivity over a large dynamic range.Furthermore, iSPR was combined with electrochemistry to enable laterally resolved studies of electrochemical surface reactions. Using this combination, the electrochemical properties of surfaces patterned with self assembled monolayers can be studied in parallel, with a spatial resolution in the µm regime. We have also employed electrochemistry and iSPR for the investigation of potential and current density gradients on bipolar electrodes.The imaging SPR instrument could be operated in either wavelength interrogation mode or in intensity mode. In the former case, the objective is to find the SPR wave-length, λSPR, which is the wavelength at which the reflected intensity is at a minimum. In intensity mode, a snapshot of the intensity reflectance is taken at a fixed wavelength hand incidence angle.In biosensor science, the use of an imaging technique offers a major advantage by enabling parallelization and thereby increasing throughput. We have, for example, used iSPR in biochemical interaction analysis to monitor immobilization and specific binding to protein and synthetic polypeptide micro arrays. The primary interest has been the study of soft matter surfaces that possess properties interesting in the field of biomimetics or for applications in biosensing. Specifically, the surfaces studied in this thesis include patterned self-assembled monolayers of thiolates on gold, a graft polymerized poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) based hydrogel, a dextran hydrogel, and a polyelectrolyte charge gradient. Our results show that the PEG-based hydrogel is very well suited for use as a platform in protein immobilization in an array format, owing to the very low unspecific binding. In addition, well defined microarray templates were designed by patterning of hydrophobic barriers on dextran and monolayer surfaces. A polypeptide affinity microarray was further designed and immobilized on such a patterned monolayer substrate, in order to demonstrate the potential of analyte quantification with high sensitivity over a large dynamic range.Furthermore, iSPR was combined with electrochemistry to enable laterally resolved studies of electrochemical surface reactions. Using this combination, the electrochemical properties of surfaces patterned with self assembled monolayers can be studied in parallel, with a spatial resolution in the µm regime. We have also employed electrochemistry and iSPR for the investigation of potential and current density gradients on bipolar electrodes.
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