| 1. |
- Aaboen, Lise, 1978
(författare)
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Incubators and incubation -Resources and activities in relation to different actors
- 2008
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- ABSTRACTIncubators prepare new technology-based firms (NTBFs) for the obstacles ahead, they complement and develop the entrepreneurial ability of the firm founder, advise regarding financing, as well as providing structure and credibility to the firm. Incubators accelerate the development of the firms towards growth, create an entrepreneurial and innovative climate in the region, and contribute to the commercialization of research results from the university. There are many descriptions but still there remains the difficulty of understanding what an incubator is, and what it does. There is a great difference between incubators due to them having been formed in relation to different actors who have varying histories. Based on the appended papers the principal actors in relation to incubators are: the incubator, the NTBFs, the university, the policy actors and the financial actors. Moreover, the part played by the incubator differs depending on the roles in relation to the different actors, and they often have more than one role in relation to the same actor. Hence, the purpose of this thesis is to explore incubation in relation to different actors. The exploration includes five appended papers. Three of the papers focus on the role of the incubators when helping the NTBFs find and utilize resources. The three types of resources are knowledge, financing and relationships. The two remaining papers focus on the incubator as an organization with particular interest in value creation and efficiency. All five appended papers are written using the resource-based view. In the cover paper the findings in the appended papers are reflected upon using the industrial network approach in order to provide another perspective, focusing on relationships as opportunities leading to an understanding of incubators and incubation. In the cover paper principal actors, activities and resources are explored. The NTBFs are developed through the incubation with the help of resources contributed by the other actors. Additional to the development, the cover paper discussed other activities included in the incubation, i.e. mediation, innovation and acceleration. These activities enable actors to access and combine resources, within and across firm boundaries, that they would otherwise have difficulties combining at that point in time, as quickly or in that way. The relationships of the incubator enable mediation of contacts between actors who are otherwise reluctant to collaborate. Through these collaborations new resource combinations may be found. Resource combinations in already existing relationship can be found using experience from other relationships. In other words, the relationships of the incubator contribute to innovation among the actors. Furthermore, the relationships of the incubator contribute to the acceleration of the NTBFs’ development by being a trusted third party actor, and by contributing to the coordination of actors aiming at improving the innovative climate. Hence, relationships are a special kind of resource for the incubators. The importance of the relationships for the incubators implies that the critical issues might not be to pick NTBFs based on criteria for growth potential, but rather on the ability to form and develop relationships for themselves, as well as the NTBF, in order to develop the firm. Furthermore, arguments regarding the increasing homogeneity among Swedish incubators are based on the rather formalized relationships with the policy actors where incubators tend to play rather similar roles. The heterogeneity is likely to be perceived as larger from the perspective of relationships that are more context specific. Moreover, the relationships, activities and combination of resources cross-fertilize each other without a natural or manageable direction that cannot be controlled by one or a few of the actors involved. After the concluding discussion there is a retrospection of the development of the thesis and the empirical material, which is based on qualitative and quantitative data that has been gathered within the Swedish incubator program mainly during 1999, 2005 and 2006.
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| 2. |
- Aagaard, Sunniva Margrethe Due
(författare)
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Reticulate Evolution in Diphasiastrum (Lycopodiaceae)
- 2009
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In this thesis relationships and the occurrence of reticulate evolutionary events in the club moss genus Diphasiastrum are investigated. Diphasiastrum is initially established as a monophyletic group within Lycopodiaceae using non recombinant chloroplast sequence data. Support is obtained for eight distinct parental lineages in Diphasiastrum, and relationships among the putative parent taxa in the hypothesized hybrid complexes; D. alpinum, D. complanatum, D. digitatum, D. multispicatum, D. sitchense, D. tristachyum and D. veitchii are presented. Feulgen DNA image densitometry data and sequence data obtained from three nuclear regions, RPB2, LEAFY and LAMB4, were used to infer the origins of three different taxa confirmed to be allopolyploid; D. zanclophyllum from South Africa, D. wightianum from Malaysia and an undescribed taxon from China. The two Asian polyploids have originated from two different hybrid combinations, D. multispicatum x D. veitchii and D. tristachyum x D. veitchii. Diphasiastrum zanclophyllum originates from a cross between D. digitatum and an unidentified diploid taxon. The occurrence of three homoploid hybrid combinations commonly recognized in Europe, D. alpinum x D. complanatum, D. alpinum x D. tristachyum and D. complanatum x D. tristachyum, are verified using the same three nuclear regions. Two of the three hybrid combinations are also shown to have originated from reciprocal crosses. Admixture analyses performed on an extended, dataset similarly identified predominately F1 hybrids and backcrosses. The observations and common recognition of hybrid species in the included populations are hence most likely due to frequent observations of neohybrids in hybrid zones. Reticulate patterns are, however, prominent in the presented dataset. Hence future studies addressing evolutionary and ecological questions in Diphasiastrum should emphasize the impact of gene flow between parent lineages rather than speciation as the result of hybridization.
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| 3. |
- Aalto, Susanne, 1964
(författare)
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Molecular Clouds in Starburst Galaxies
- 1994
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Starbursts in the centres of galaxies are believed to be caused by funneling of gas towards the inner regions. Gravitational interactions between galaxies are known to cause vast rearrangements of their structure as well as induce bursts of star formation in their nuclear regions. However, radial gas-transport may also be the result of a bar- instability intrinsic to the system. This report deals with the effect of a starburst on the molecular medium of galaxies. The mm-wave, rotational transitions of interstellar molecules serve as probes of the physical conditions, kinematics and total mass of the molecular gas. Observations of the J=1-0, J=2-1 and J=3-2 transitions of 12Co, the J=1-0 and J=2-1 transitions of 13Co, the J=1-0 transitions of C180 and HCN and the J=2-1 transition of CS are used to determine the properties of the molecular gas in starbursting and normal galaxies. The mean escape probability approximation is used to solve the radiative transfer equations. The inferred properties of the molecular clouds in the centres of starburst galaxies differ from those of Galactic disk clouds. Such a deviation is likely to be induced by a central gas concentration and/or the nuclear starburst disrupting the clouds. Large 12CO/13CO J=1-0 intensity ratios (R>20) are measured towards luminous mergers implying unusual, high-pressure, molecular cloud ensembles. Model cloud ensembles for the merging system, NGC 3256, and the starburst spiral NGC 1808 suggest that the 12CO-emission is dominated by warm (Tk = 100 - 300 K), small (0.5-1 pc) and moderately dense (n = 2 - 7 x 103 cm-3) molecular clouds. Such temperatures and densities are typical of Galactic photon dominated regions (PDRs). Statistical studies of molecular line ratios towards galaxy centres indicate that the optical depth of the 12CO 1-0 emission is moderate, .tau.Ã? 1. Many starburst galaxies have large-scale excitation gradients indicating warm, dense gas in the centre, and normal cool molecular gas in their extended disks. NGC 3256, in particular, has a large R = 35 in the centre, while it is found to be only R = 10 - 15 at positions 43" off centre. The model cloud ensemble of NGC 1808 indicate that the 12CO-emitting gas may be diffuse rather than self-gravitating, this could be a common phenomenon in starburst galaxies.
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| 4. |
- Aaltonen, Emil
(författare)
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Prokaryotic Arsenic Resistance - Studies in Bacillus subtilis
- 2008
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Arsenic is a toxic metalloid which is found all over the globe. Due to its toxicity and wide abundance, all living organisms have evolved intrinsic arsenic resistance systems. In this study, three proteins that provide arsenic resistance in the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis have been investigated. Acr3 is a trans-membrane protein that extrudes arsenite to the cell exterior. It belongs to the ACR family of arsenite transporters. Experimental data on the topology of Acr3, the first ever for a member of the ACR family, is provided and show that Acr3 has 10 trans-membrane helices. Both the N- and C-terminal ends of Acr3 are located to the cytoplasm and the protein has unusually short loops connecting its helices. ArsR is an arsenite sensitive transcription regulator that controls the expression of genes encoding arsenic resistance proteins. Experiments show that the operator site for ArsR from B. subtilis consists of a 6-6-6 inverted repeat and that DNA binding by ArsR involves formation of higher order multimers of the protein. The ArsK (former YqcK) protein has an unknown function. The present study shows that the arsK gene contributes to resistance towards both arsenite and arsenate. The results indicate that the function of ArsK is important in an aerobic environment and that it decreases the inhibitory effect that arsenite has on the sporulation efficiency of B. subtilis. A function of ArsK that involves an enzymatic addition of low molecular weight thiols to arsenic is proposed.
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| 5. |
- Aaltonen, Jaana, 1969-
(författare)
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Ground Monitoring using Resistivity Measurements in Glaciated Terrains
- 2001
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The most common method of monitoring and mapping groundwatercontaminants is to extract and analyse a number of groundwatersamples from wells in the investigation area. However, thereare a number of limitations with this type of point-wiseinvestigation, as it is hard to acquire an adequate picture ofa heterogeneous and anisotropic subsurface using a fewpoints. To overcome the limitations of point investigations and toimprove ground monitoring investigations in a cost-effectiveway, support can be provided by direct current resistivitymeasurements, which give a characterisation of the electricalproperties of a ground volume. The main objective with this work was to investigate theusability of the resistivity method as a support in monitoringgroundwater contaminants in glaciated terrains and underdifferent seasons, both in long-term monitoring programmes andintracer tests. The work comprised field investigations at several differentsanitary landfills and four tracer tests in differentgeological environments, around the Stockholm region. The maininvestigations have been done at Högbytorp, Stockholmwhich has been used for long-term investigations of theresistivity variation, together with a field set up formonitoring and measurements on seasonal variation in soilmoisture, ground temperature and precipitation. It can be concluded that the use of resistivity measurementssupplies valuable information in the case of mapping andmonitoring conductive groundwater contaminants andfurthermore: The variation in resistivity (in shallow investigations<1 m) can be extensive between different seasons (around30 % compared to a mean value in till and clay soils) andshould be considered, so that anthropogenic affects can beseparated from natural resistivity variation. For deeperinvestigations (>5 m) the seasonal resistivity variationwas more moderate (around 15% compared to a mean value intill and clay soils). Soil moisture variation shows a strong relationship toresistivity variation in the investigated clay and tillsoils. Together with temperature correction 47 to 65% of thevariation has been explained. Three types of monitoring systems can be applied:Permanently installed, partly installed and fully mobilesystems. For the actual measurements, all three types can useeither high-density techniques such as CVES (ContinuousVertical Electrical Sounding) or low-density measuring withone or some different electrode spacings. The suggested evaluation tool for monitoring programmesshowed that it was possible to detect a decrease of 15 % inthe mean value at a specific site using Modified Double Masscalculations between resistivity time series and time seriesat a reference site with a comparable seasonalvariation. Resistivity measurements may be used as a valuablecomplement to groundwater sampling in tracer tests. Adecrease in resistivity, a minimum and a recovery phasereflect the passage of a NaCl-solution, which can be used toestimate flow velocity and flow patterns of the investigatedaquifer. The achieved recovery of NaCl in the tracer testscarried out was estimated to 20 to 70 %. The measurement system for long-term monitoring or tracertests, which should be chosen with regard to layout andfrequency, depends on the purpose of measurement and onsite-specific conditions and therefore no standard solutioncan be proposed. Key words:Resistivity, Direct Current, Monitoring,Groundwater, Contaminant, Tracer test, Geophysics.
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| 6. |
- Aaltonen, Kristina
(författare)
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Mating system evolution and self-incompatibility in the wild plant species Brassica cretica
- 2008
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Compared to animals like ourselves, plants have a very flexible sexual life. Most plants are, for example, hermaphrodites with the potential capacity for reproduction by self-fertilization (or selfing). While selfing can provide several definite advantages for the individual plant, there is a downside; mainly the severe reduction in fitness due to inbreeding depression. To avoid the negative consequences of selfing, many hermaphrodite plant species have evolved an intricate self-recognition – or self-incompatibility (SI) – system that prevents fertilization by cognate pollen. SI is in the majority of cases genetically controlled by a narrowly delimited region of the genome, called the S locus. The S locus contains several tightly linked genes, two of which – SRK and SCR – determine the pistil (female) and pollen (male) SI recognition type. One of the best-characterized SI systems is found in the Brassicaceae family, which includes the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and a number of economically important crop species of the Brassica genus, e.g. rape seed, cabbage, and turnip. For evolutionary biologists, SI have long been a prominent and fascinating example of Darwinian natural selection acting in a frequency-dependent manner, i.e. the rarer a genetic variant becomes, the more favoured by natural selection it is. For the S locus, this means that a very large number of variants – or haplotypes – are expected to be maintained in a population and that the DNA sequences of different haplotypes will be very divergent. However, until recently there has been a shortage of empirical studies from natural plant populations to test these, and other, theoretical predictions of S locus evolutionary dynamics. In this thesis, I have produced the largest SRK and SCR DNA sequence data set from a wild Brassica species available to date. These data have allowed me to explore, in more detail than previously possible, the population genetic properties and the evolutionary history of the Brassica S locus. Moreover, accompanying studies of the pattern of inheritance of S locus variants and the occurrence of self-fertilization in natural B. cretica population have added novel information of great value to the understanding of how plants produce offspring in nature.
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| 7. |
- Aanesen, Arthur
(författare)
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GABA and human spermatozoa : characterization and regulation of GABA transport proteins
- 1998
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The present project aimed at investigating the interaction between GABA and human spermatozoa under in vitro conditions. Our initial hypothesis was that human spermatozoa had specific binding proteins for GABA and that the binding of GABA to such binding sites could affect sperm function. Studies on swim-up preparations of human spermatozoa incubated with radiolabelled GABA in the presence of unlabelled GABA, alternatively displacers of GABAA/B receptors and GABA transport proteins, indicated that GABA specific binding sites were present on the surface of human spermatozoa. The potency of the different inhibitors indicated that the binding sites possibly represented GABA transport proteins. No effect on sperm motility or AR was observed following incubation with GABA. Further studies indicated that human spermatozoa are capable of a carrier mediated GABA uptake. The uptake is dependent on the concentration of chloride and sodium in the external medium, and the kinetic properties of the carrier resembled high affinity GABA transport proteins. Uptake of radiolabelled GABA into human spermatozoa in the presence of steroids was investigated. We examined progesterone, other steroids known to increase calcium influx, and steroids known to be ineffective as stimulators of calcium influx in human sperm. The results demonstrated a twofold increase in GABA uptake following preincubation with P or steroids known to stimulate calcium influx. In contrast, an inhibition of GABA uptake following preincubation with activators of protein kinase C was observed. The results suggest a role for PKC in the regulation of GABA transport in human spermatozoa. The reduced GABA uptake following incubation with phorbol esters and diacyl glycerol (DAG) analogues, as well as the lack of effect observed following addition of inactive DAG analogues, strongly indicate such a regulatory pathway. The existence of GABA transporter m-RNA and proteins in human testis and sperm was examined using RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting. Oligonucleotide primer pairs were designed from nucleotide sequences for the three cloned GABA transport proteins identified in human brain: GAT-1, GAT-3 and BGT-1. From homogenized human testis, PCR products of predicted size and with homology to respective GABA transport proteins were identified. This finding indicates the MRNA expression of all three GABA transporters in human testicular tissue. Studies on the protein expression of GABA transporters in sperm cells were performed with SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting techniques. Immunoblots using polyclonal antibodies raised against rat GAT-1, GAT-2 and GAT-3 recognized bands of approximately 65kDa, indicating cross-reactivity to GABA transporters present in human sperm cells. Pharmacological characterization of GABA uptake with specific inhibitors of GABA transport revealed a unique sequence in the relative potencies of the inhibitors tested. The results may indicate the presence of more than one GABA transporter in the plasma membrane of human spermatozoa. Immunoblots and immunohistochemistry studies indicate the presence of one or several GABA transporters in human spermatozoa and testis, these results are supported by pharmacological studies using specific inhibitors of GABA transport. These studies add new information to the present knowledge concerning GABA and human spermatozoa. They also for the first time describe specific GABA transport proteins in the male reproductive tract. Further studies are however, required to elucidate the functional role for these proteins in terms of human reproduction.
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| 8. |
- Aanestad, Øystein
(författare)
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Quantitative electromyographic studies of the perineal muscles in normal subjects and patients suffering from anal or urinary incontinence
- 1998
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The aims of the study were to characterize the interference pattern in perineal muscles in healthy subjects with the use of quantitative EMG techniques, to evaluate if prostatic surgery had any effect on the interference pattern and furthermore to examine the interference pattern in the perineal muscles in patients suffering from urinary or anal incontinence.The interference pattern in the perineal muscles was examined with a computerized analysis, the Turns and Amplitude (T/A) analysis, and the innervation pattern of the muscles was examined with single fiber electromyography measuring the fiber density. Reference values were collected from 30 normal subjects. The patient material consisted of 20 males subjected to transurethral prostatectomy (TUR-P), 10 males who underwent radical retropubic prostatectomy (RRP), 20 patients suffering from anal incontinence and 24 women withurinary incontinence.T/A analysis of the interference pattern in the perineal muscles in normal subjects showed a significant increase in number of turns/sec and mean amplitude correlating to increasing force but no age-related changes.TUR-P and RRP did effect the innervation of the distal urethral sphincter muscle as shown by increased fiber density indicating a peripheral nerve lesion. T/A analysis did not shown any increased activation of the distal urethral sphincter as a compensation for the loss in bladder neck sphincter function but rather signs of decreasedcentral activation.Patients with idiopathic faecal incontinence showed signs of impaired innervation of the external anal sphincter muscle. A decreased interference pattern at maximal contraction indicated a reduced central activation of perineal muscles, in particular for patients with partial rupture of the external anal sphincter muscle. The reduced central activation could play a role for the aetiology of faecal incontinence.Patients with urinary stress incontinence also showed signs of impaired innervation of the external anal sphincter muscle as well as reduced interference pattern at maximal contraction and during continuous recording of the EMG activity during cystometry. A reduced central activation of the motor units was predicted as one factor involved in the aetiology.
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| 9. |
- Aardal-Eriksson, Elisabeth
(författare)
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Salivary cortisol and posttraumatic stress reactions : methodological and applied studies before and after trauma
- 2002
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The field of psychotraumatology has its roots in ancient history. During the past decades, the surveillance of the psychobiological background of reactions to and consequences of traumatic stress has made great progress and the complexity of the human stress response system stands out. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis activity, modulated by various neuroimmunological substances, seems to play a major role in the stress response. However, there are still inconsistencies in explanations of relationships between biological and psychological changes following traumatic stress. Moreover, the matter of predictive factors for the development of posttraumatic morbidity is still in a speculative phase.The aims of the present thesis were to further develop a commercial serum cortisol radioimmunoassay (RIA) for determination of cortisol in saliva and to test its reliability, specificity and sensitivity as a biochemical assay. The saliva sampling procedures and sample storage stability were also to be tested. Further issues were to investigate determinations of salivary cortisol and serum prolactin in relation to selfratings of posttraumatic psychological distress and general psychological health. Possible predictive and concurrent validity of salivary cortisol as a biochemical marker for posttraumatic psychological distress were to be tested.Cortisol is present in saliva mainly in non-protein form, representing the free, biologically active fraction of the total plasma cortisol concentration. In a first phase of the present thesis, the commercial serum cortisol RIA was modified for determination of cortisol in saliva. The relation between salivary and serum cortisol concentrations was tested. Reference ranges at 8 AM and 10 PM for the salivary cortisol assay were established from 195 healthy subjects. Salivary cortisol concentrations were tested in relation to serum cortisol in estimating adrenocortical function during endocrine dynamic function tests in 37 patients and 13 healthy controls. In testing salivary cortisol as a marker for stress for fieldwork use, a screening study was performed on 66 male rescue workers. Salivary cortisol at 8 AM and 10 PM and serum prolactin were determined and general psychological health and posttraumatic psychological distress were estimated with the self-rating scales General Health Questionnaire, Impact of Event Scale and Posttraumatic Symptom Scale. These scales were used in the second phase of the thesis. Three applied follow-up studies were performed with sampling of salivary cortisol and self-ratings: (a) a study of 31 UN-soldiers five days, two and nine months after a mine accident; (b) a study of 145 UN-soldiers before, at return, and two and six month after a six month mission. (c) a study of 101 UN-soldiers six and twelve months after a six month mission with severe combat exposure.The results from the present thesis indicate that the modified method of salivary cortisol determination possesses sufficient precision, accuracy, sample storage stability and procedural advantages for laboratory, clinical and field application. Moreover, it possesses moderate predictive information and moderate to high concurrent validity as a biochemical marker for posttraumatic psychological distress.
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| 10. |
- Aare, Magnus, 1974-
(författare)
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Prevention of Head Injuries - focusing Specifically on Oblique Impacts
- 2003
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The massive number of injuries sustained in trafficaccidents is a growing problem worldwide, especially indeveloping countries. In 1998, more than one million peoplewere killed in traffic accidents worldwide, while about tentimes as many people were injured. Injuries to the centralnervous system and in particular to the headare especiallycritical to human life. This thesis contains five researchpapers looking at head injuries and head protection, proposingnew and more efficient ways of protecting the head, especiallyin traffic accidents.In order to define the national dimensions of the patternsof injuries incurred in motorcycle and moped accidents inSweden, a statistical survey was performed on data spanning a13-year period (Paper A). In Sweden, 27,100 individualsreceived in-patient care for motorcycle and moped accidentinjuries between 1987 and 1999. The motorcycle and moped injuryrate reduced in the second half of the study period, so toowere the total number of days of treatment per year. Males hadeight times the incidence of injuries of females. Head injurieswere the single most frequent diagnosis, followed by fracturesof the lower limbs. Concussion was the most frequent headinjury. These statistics clearly show the need for better headinjury prevention systems.According to the statistics, the most common type of impactto the head in motorcycle and moped accidents is an obliqueimpact. Oblique impacts generate rotations of the head, whichare a common cause of the most severe head injuries. Thereforea new test rig was constructed to reproduce oblique impacts toa helmeted dummy head, simulating those occurring in real lifeaccidents (Paper B). The new test rig was shown to provideuseful data at speeds of up to 50 km/h and with impact anglesvarying from purely tangential to purely radial. Thisinnovative test rig appears to provide an accurate method formeasuring accelerations in oblique impacts to helmets.When testing the performances of motorcycle helmets,discrepancies are usually seen in the test results. In order toevaluate these discrepancies, the finite element method (FEM)was used for simulations of a few oblique helmet impacts (PaperC). Amongthe parameters studied, the coefficients of frictionbetween the impacting surface and the helmet and between thehead and the helmet had the most significant influence on therotational accelerations. Additionally, a thinner andconsequently also weaker shell and a weaker liner, providedbetter protection for the impacts studied.Since there are no generally accepted global injurythresholds for oblique impacts to the human head, a study wasdesigned to propose new injury tolerances accounting for bothtranslations and rotations of the head (Paper D). In thatstudy, FE models of (a) a human head, (b) a Hybrid III dummyhead, and (c) the experimental helmet were used. Differentcriteria were proposed for different impact scenarios. Both thetranslational and the rotational effects were found to beimportant when proposing a predictor equation for the strainlevels experienced by the human brain in simulated impacts tothe head.In order to reduce the level of head injuries in society andto better understand helmet impacts from different aspect, aballistic impact was also studied (Paper E). The effects ofdifferent helmet shell stiffness and different angles ofimpacts were simulated. In this study, the same FE head modelfrom Paper D was used, however here it was protected with amodel of a composite ballistic helmet. It was concluded thatthe helmet shell should be stiff enough to prevent the insideof the shell from striking the skull, and that the strainsarising in the brain tissue were higher for some obliqueimpacts than for purely radial ones.In conclusion, this thesis describes the injury pattern ofmotorcycle and moped accidents in Sweden. This thesis showsthat the injuries sustained from these accidents can bereduced. In order to study both translational as well asrotational impacts, a new laboratory test rig was designed. Byusing the finite element method, it is possible to simulaterealistic impacts to the head and also to predict how severehead injuries may potentially be prevented.
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