| 61. |
- Fridriksson, Steen M., 1961-
(författare)
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Changing strategies in the treatment of aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage : challenging the second bleed
- 2004
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Despite considerable advances in the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) over the past decades, the overall outcome is still disappointing. Currently, not more than six patients out of every ten with a ruptured aneurysm, reaching hospital alive, will recover to a normal life. Apart from the direct effects of the initial haemorrhage, vasospasm and rebleeding clearly stand out as the leading causes of unfavourable results in this capricious disease, and both of these factors seem potentially amenable to further improvement in therapeutic intervention.Ever since the concept of early aneurysm surgery gained wider acceptance, the focus of the neurosurgical community has shifted from re bleeding towards the problem of vasospasm and delayed ischaemic neurological deficits (DIND). During recent years, vasospasm has attracted at least five times more attention than rebleeding in terms of published articles, and huge research efforts have been offered in the pursuit of a medical solution to this problem. Although progress has been made in the treatment of vasospasm during the last decades, DIND continues to contribute significantly to unfavourable outcome in the management of aneurysmal SAH victims. Recent series report an average of 13.5% of patients suffering DIND, leading to unfavourable outcome in 7% of all cases reaching hospital for treatment. Contrary to rebleeding, there is a dominance of morbidity (4.5%) over mortality (2.5%).Historically, the efforts aimed at reducing the risk of rebleeding have mostly been related to the controversial question of the timing of surgery. The current performance in many centers, with over 90% of all ruptured aneurysms seen being occluded within 24 hours from the haemorrhage, gives the impression that we have reached the ultimate protection against rebleeding, with little left to improve in that field. However, the term rebleeding, as we are used to defming it, apparently only represents a part of a wider spectrum of recurrent aneurysm ruptures. Index haemorrhages preceeded by warning leaks and intraoperative ruptures occurring after index haemonhages also share the features of devastating impact on clinical condition and on outcome, and from a practical point of view it may be meaningful to consider all these recurrent ruptures as a common entity - the second bleed.In the studies presented in this thesis, the second bleed has shown to have a profound impact on management outcome in aneurysmal SAH. It accounts for morbidity and mortality in at least 12% of all patients receiving treatment, which is roughly one-third of all patients with poor management outcome. Evidently, prevention of most recurrent bleeds are within the reach of current management protocols. Modifications of strategies in use are presented, that include new guidelines for the pre-neurosurgical care to ensure detection of warning leaks and to provide protection against ultra-early rebleeds, that cannot be reached by early aneurysm occlusion. In the neurosurgical phase, modifications of the surgical protocol allowing for a routine application of intraoperative neuroprotection and liberal use of temporary clipping are advocated.By refocusing the second bleed, identification of it's various forms and modification of treatment protocols for ruptured aneurysms aimed at reducing these recurrent bleeds, many losses can be turned into good outcome, at a cost that is much lower than the cost of pursuing the final solution of vasospasm.
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| 62. |
- Friedrichsen, Maria, 1966-
(författare)
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Crossing the border : Different ways cancer patients, family members and physicians experience information in the transition to the late palliative phase
- 2002
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Information in the transition to the late palliative phase is not a well-studied area, especially not from the perspective of patients and family members. The aim of this thesis was to describe how cancer patients, family members and physicians experience information during the transition from a curative or early palliative phase to a late palliative phase, i.e. when tumour-specific treatment could not be offered. Cancer patients (n=30) admitted to palliative hospital based home care, family members (n=20) of cancer patients, and physicians (n=30) working with cancer patients in different settings were included in order to create a maximum variation sampling.Tape-recorded, semi-structured interviews and qualitative, phenomenographic analyses were done in all the studies.Patients described the physician as an expert (study I), an important person during this event, despite characterising him/her in different ways ranging from the empathetic professional to the rough and ready expert. Their relationship with the physician was also stressed. Their own resources, i.e. a sense of well being, a sense of security and individual strength, and their previous knowledge, were important components regarding their ability to take part in the communication (study II). Patients interpret words and phrases carefully and can perceive them as forewarnings, as being emotionally trying, and as fortifying and strengthening (study III). The overall message could be interpreted as either focused on quality if life, on treatment or on death and threat.Family members wanted to protect the patient during this period and could be very active and prominent in their protective role (study IV). However, other family members described themselves as being in the background more or less involuntarily. Family members also felt that there were expectations regarding their behaviour, either that they should take over in terms of communication, or that they should restrict their participation. When giving information, the physicians had a clear goal - to make the patient understand while being as considerate toward the patient as possible. However, the strategies for reaching this goal differed and included: explaining and convincing, softening the impact and vaguely suggesting, preparing and adapting. Some physicians had a main strategy while others mixed different strategies depending on the context.The experience of receiving and providing information about discontinuing tumour specific treatment is like crossing a border, where patients experience the behaviour of the physician and the words they express of great significance. Family members assume the role of protectors. Physicians use different strategies in order to help patients cross the border.
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| 63. |
- Friström, Björn, 1944-
(författare)
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Aspects of the diagnosis and treatment of glaucoma
- 2001
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Glaucoma is one of the most common causes of blindness in the world, and it is important that screening tests as well as treatment possibilities are improved continuously. A reliable but more rapid screening test than those already available would be of great interest. In addition, new and more effective treatment options would be most valuable. The aims of the present thesis were to evaluate the reliability of a new and rapid peripheral colour contrast sensitivity test as a tool for glaucoma screening and to gain more information on latanoprost, a recently developed prostaglandin analogue, in glaucoma treatment.Colour contrast sensitivity was analysed with a system described by Arden and co-workers, using a computer controlled colour monitor. The test objects for the central test were letters of standard optotype subtending a visual angle of 3° . For the peripheral test, the test object was a colour contrasting annulus concentric with a fixation spot. The annulus had a radius of 12.5° in the extramacular field and a width of 1°. The colour contrast of the letter or the annulus in relation to the background could be changed, and a colour contrast threshold value could be obtained in the protan, deutan and tritan colour axes.In a study of glaucoma patients, ocular hypertensive patients and normals, the peripheral colour contrast sensitivity test was found to distinguish the glaucoma patients from the normals. However, it was difficult to find a reliable cut-off point if the test is to be used as a screening test.In a five-year prospective study of ocular hypertensive patients, the peripheral colour contrast sensitivity test could not clearly predict which patients would develop glaucoma and which would not, given that the Glaucoma Herrrifield Test is used as the golden standard. A change over time in the protan axis may, however, indicate glaucoma development. For a test to be used in glaucoma screening, it is necessary to know whether other common eye diseases such as diabetes and cataract affect the outcome. Therefore, the influence of diabetes and cataract on peripheral and central colour contrast sensitivity was also studied.Diabetes type II was found to affect both peripheral and central colour contrast sensitivity, the tritan axis being the most affected one. For the tritan axis, the central colour contrast sensitivity seemed to correlate well with the degree of diabetic retinopathy, indicating the possibility of a new functional test of diabetic retinopathy.Cataract, even moderately developed, affected both peripheral and central colour contrast sensitivity. Central colour contrast sensitivity seemed to be poorer in pseudophakic eyes than in normal eyes. Thus, both diabetes type II and moderate to severe cataract must be considered if the colour contrast sensitivity test is to be used for glaucoma screening. The choice of material for the IOL may also be of importance for postoperative central colour contrast sensitivity.The prostaglandin analogue latanoprost effectively reduces the IOP at the original concentration of 0.005%. However, several patients need additional treatment. Therefore, the effect of pilocarpine in combination with latanoprost was studied. When pilocarpine was added to latanoprost, there was an additional reduction in the intraocular presure (IOP) (7.4%), and when latanoprost was added to pilocarpine the reduction was even more pronounced (142%). Therefore, it seems that latanoprost and pilocarpine can be combined in glaucoma treatment.In certain eyes, an increased iris pigmentation was seen as a side-effect of latanoprost. This side-effect may be dose-dependent. Therefore, the original concentration of 0.005% was compared to a lower concentration, 0.001%. Latanoprost 0.005% was more effective than latanoprost 0.001% in reducing the IOP. However, the lower concentration was sufficiently effective to have a potential for clinical use in many patients. Latanoprost 0.005% gave an lOP reduction of 35% after four weeks of treatment, which was in agreement with earlier results. The lower concentration was, however, surprisingly effective and gave an IOP reduction of 27.7%.
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| 64. |
- Fägerskiöld, Astrid, 1942-
(författare)
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Support of mothers and their infants by the child health nurse : expectations and experiences
- 2002
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The general aim of this thesis was to describe and analyse the CH nurse's support of mothers and their infants, given in order to form a good relationship md lead to favourable development of the child. In studies I, II and III, grounded theory and constant comparative method were used. The aim of study I was to identify how child health nurses view the mother-infant relationship, and how they can improve this relationship. The nurses (n=10) could, through observation of the interplay between mother and infant, view the relationship between the two of them. Such interplay depends on the mother's ability to interpret the infant's signals and the clarity of these signals. These attributes are influenced by mother and infant body language, vocal language, health status, expectations and life situation, which are also influenced mutually. The nurse could improve this relationship through promoting an understanding of the interplay between mother and infant.The aims of study II were to identify what the child health nurse believed was expected of her by women who had recently become mothers, primipara and multipara; and to investigate which problems the nurse found it most difficult to deal with and to analyse why they were difficult. The nurses (n=15) believed that mothers expected care of the infant and the family from the nurse, comprising support, advice, and child health assessments. The nurses found it most difficult to deal with obstacles to interaction with mothers, such as motherhood problems, hidden, social, and organisational problems.The aims of study III were to identify what first-time mothers expected of the child health nurse; and to investigate the help and support that new mothers receive from nurses, and whether first-time mothers felt that anything was lacking. The mothers (n=20) expected the nurse to be a supporter, characterized by accessibility, approachability, knowledge, advice and support. They had experienced most of these things, accessibility and approachability in particular. However, the nurses showed a lack of continuity in interest in the mothers' bodies and health. In addition, mothers who wished to discontinue breast-feeding felt that they lacked support from the nurse.The aim of study IV was to investigate mothers' experiences of their encounters with the child health nurse. A national random sample of mothers (n=140) reported, based on critical incident technique, support or lack of support from the nurse. Thematic content analysis, including 125 reports and demographic data, was accomplished. Symbolic interactionism was used as a frame of reference. The central factor was that they were able to share the realm of motherhood that the nurse is willing to share all kinds of emotions and experiences related to being a mother. The majority of the mothers had received valuable support during troublesome incidents. Nevertheless, there were several dissatisfied mothers who had expected support but thought that they had received insulting treatment instead.The aims of study V were to describe similarities and differences in expectations of the child health nurse, as they were expressed by recently delivered first-time mothers as compared to an expression of what child health nurses believed mothers of infants expected of them. Data from the intetviews with nurses in study II and mothers in study III (n=35) were analysed by thematic content analysis. The nurse could be someone to approach, who, through her knowledge, could assess the child's development and give immunizations and be a supporter, counsellor, safety provider and a parent group organizer. Similarities between mothers' and nurses' statements occurred more frequently than differences, which are suggested to depend on the Swedish tradition among new mothers of visiting the child health clinic. The mothers expected participation in parent groups to a higher degree than the nurses believed that they did.
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| 65. |
- Geijer, Håkan
(författare)
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Radiation dose and image quality in diagnostic radiology : optimization of the dose - image quality relationship with clinical experience from scoliosis radiography, coronary intervention and a flat-panel digital detector
- 2001
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Det är känt att röntgenstrålning kan orsaka cancersjukdomar, hudskador och andra sidoeffekter. Därför är det viktigt och även föreskrivet i lag att strålexpaneringen inom diagnostisk radiologi skall sänkas så långt som möjligt. Detta kallas på engelska ALARA-principen (As Low As Reasonably Achievable). stråldosen är kopplad till bildkvalitet och denna får inte sänkas så långt att det diagnostiska värdet av en undersökning äventyras. Processen att nå en sådan balans mellan dos och bildkvalitet kallas optimering. Syftet med denna avhandling är att fmna och utvärdera metoder för att optimera förhållandet mellan stråldos och bildkvalitet inom diagnostisk radiologi med fokus på klinisk användbarhet. Arbetet utfördes i tre huvuddelar.Optimering av skoliosröntgen: I första delen utvärderades två nyligen utvecklade metoder får digital skoliosröntgen (digital exponering och pulsad genomlysning). De järnfårdes även med film-skärmsystem som var den tidigare standardmetoden. Stråldosen mättes som Kerma area-produkt (KAP), ytdos (Entrance surface dose, ESD) och effektiv dos; bildkvaliteten värderades med ett kontrast-detaljfantom och genom visuell analys på kliniska bilder. Noggrannheten i vinkelmätningar värderades också. stråldosen för digital exponering var nästan dubbelt så hög som för film med jämförbar bildkvalitet medan pulsad genomlysning hade en mycket låg dos men betydligt sämre bildkvalitet. Variabiliteten i vinkelmätningar var tillräckligt låg i alla metoder. Därefter optimerades inställningarna för digital exponering till en betydligt lägre stråldos med viss sänkning av bildkvaliteten jämfört med utgångsläget.Direktdigital detektor: I den andra delstudien utvärderades en direktdigital detektor med ett kontrast-detaljfantom där stråldosen mättes som ingångsdos i fantomet. Den direktdigitala detektorn gav bättre bildkvalitet vid lägre dos jämfört med både bildplattor och film. Jämförbar bildkvalitet med bildplattor nåddes vid ungefär en tredjedel av dosen.Optimering av perkutan koranar intervention (PCI): I tredje delstudien undersöktes påverkan på stråldos och bildkvalitet av olika inställningar vid kranskärlsröntgen och PCI. Utifrån dessa fynd sänktes dosraten för genomlysning till en tredjedel. Dossänkningen utvärderades i en serie bestående av 154 PCI-procedurer före och 138 efter optimeringen. Genom denna optimering sänktes det totala KAP-värdet signifikant till två tredjedelar av ursprungsvärdet.Sammanfattningsvis påvisar denna avhandling möjligheterna till dossänkning i diagnostisk radiologi genom optimering av den radiografiska processen.
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| 66. |
- Gentile, Massimiliano
(författare)
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Genetic Alterations in Early Onset Breast Cancer
- 2001
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Cancer is in essence a genetic disease, brought about by an accumulation of alterations in genes that encode proteins responsible for the control of cell growth, cell death and the maintenance of genomic integrity. Recent years have seen the unravelling of numerous genes that are targeted in carcinogenesis. Although several genes implicated in breast cancer have been identified, a substantial proportion of breast cancer cases is not linked to any definite gene, implying that more gene targets remain to be discovered. Based on clinicopathological differences observed between early and late onset breast cancers, it has been proposed that they may be biologically different with separate genetic origins and/or development. The work included in this thesis was initiated with the intent to identify some of the genetic aberrations that characterise early onset breast cancer.The p53 protein is central in cell cycle control and alterations in its gene sequence are among the most commonly observed genetic events in human malignancies. The present study investigated the occurrence of p53 aberrations both at the protein and the gene level. Mutations were found in 17% of the cases, whereas loss of heterozygosity (LOH) and protein accumulation were observed in 42% and 46% of cases,respectively. Mutations situated in either of the L2 and L3 loops of the zinc-binding domain were found to confer a more adverse prognosis, when compared with mutations outside this region or wild-type gene (P=0.0007).LOH was further assessed for loci mapping to commonly altered chromosome regions on llq, 13q and 17p,q. High proportion of LOH was found for the BRCA1 locus and for the 11q24-q25 region where no tumour-associated gene has previously been identified. Moreover, patients with losses of this locus were observed to have a poorer prognosis (p=0.02S). In order to pinpoint the location of this putative tumour-associated gene locus, five additional microsatellite markers were scored for LOH. Association with poor prognosis, as well as with higher Nottingham Histologic Grade, narrowed the region to achromosome segment spanning approximately 500 kb. The importance of this chromosomal region was also evaluated in a group of familial breast cancers without linkage to either of the breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1 and BRCA2. Data demonstrated significantly lower occurrence of LOH for the majority of the markers, suggesting a less important role for the 11q24-q25 region in this subset of patients.Based on putative or known function, candidate genes located in proximity of the region identified above were selected for mutation screening. Of the investigated candidate genes, by virtue of the relatively high occurrence of alterations in its mRNA and its proposed function as mediator of apoptosis, PIG8 stood out as the most promising candidate.In addition to confirming the involvement of gene loci previously shown to be implicated in breast cancer, a region on chromosome llq was identified that may harbour a gene of importance for the disease course of early onset cases. The most promising candidate gene appears to be PIG8, which has been proposed to mediate p53-induced apoptosis.
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| 67. |
- Gladh, Gunilla, 1943-
(författare)
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To void at will : lnvestigation and treatment of children with bladder dysfunction
- 2002
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Improvements in diagnostic and treatment procedures have made it possible to obtain a normal kidney function and continence for most children with bladder dysfunction. However, in the daily clinical work further diagnostic and treatments procedures may be required when traditional methods fail to help the child. The aims of the present studies were to evaluate such diagnostic and treatments alternatives.A 4-hours observation test of voiding pattern was evaluated in 50 healthy newborns, as reference values were lacking for this age group. Normal values for voiding frequency, intervals, volume and residual urine were established. All parameters varied greatly both inter- and intraindividually. Residual urine occurred after some voidings in most newborns.At our clinic, children are catheterised without anaesthesia or sedation, following a special concept of preparation. When evaluating this routine most children (93/99) tolerated the procedure well. Five girls and one boy (or their parents) reported the catheterisation to be "very painful", without requiring that the procedure was interrupted.The diagnostic value of the bladder cooling tests (BCT) was evaluated in 108 children with neurogenic bladder dysfunction. The BCT could identify a functional sacral reflex arch in children without voiding contractions or confirm a suspected lower motor neurone lesion. A positive test in children older than 6 years verified the diagnosis neurogenic bladder dysfunction.The effect of anogenital afferent stimulation (AGAS) was retrospectively evaluated in 48 children with therapy resistant urge incontinence. Thirty-eight percent were cured, another 15 % improved. AGAS is a useful, potentially curative treatment in children with severe urge incontinence.Intravesical electrical stimulation (IVES) was offered as alternative treatment to 44 children with bladder emptying problems, 20 of neurogenic origin. Twenty-eight children, 8 with neurogenic problems, had long term normalisation of their voiding and 11/15 children could discontinue clean intermittent catheterisation. IVES seems to be a promising method for treatment of underactive detrusor in children.Conclusions: Some investigative methods aimed at children with suspected bladder dysfunction were evaluated together with two new treatment modalities involving electrical stimulation of afferent nerve fibres. Anogenital or intravesical electrical stimulation represents alternative options for children with urge incontinence or underactive detrusor when standard treatments fail.
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| 68. |
- Glendor, Ulf, 1948-
(författare)
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On Dental Trauma in Children and Adolescents : Incidence, Risk, Treatment, Time and Costs
- 2000
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Background: Dental trauma occur in childhood and adolescence with consequences in time and costs for both patient and family. The scientific knowledge of these matters is scarce. For some individuals, dental trauma will result in long, time-consuming and costly treatments in childhood which will continue into adulthood.Aim: The thesis aimed to increase the knowledge of incidence, risk, treatment, time and costs spent on dental traumas to primary and permanent teeth in children and adolescents.Material and method: The material for the studies emanated from the county of Västmanland, Sweden, and the municipality of Copenhagen, Denmark, and from a Swedish nation-wide material (Folksam). The material was collected from accident reports, dental files, dental trauma forms, questionnaires and telephone interviews. Descriptive, prospective and analytical methods were used. A classification of uncomplicated and complicated dental traumas was presented.Results: The incidence of dental trauma to boys was higher, compared to girls, in the county of Västmanland in almost all age groups. For both sexes, the first years in life and the first years in school were the most accident prone periods with incidence twice as high as the average incidence for all children and adolescents in the county. Every third trauma was complicated with injuries to the pulp or periodontal ligaments. Every second patient with a dental trauma to permanent teeth suffered from multiple dental trauma episodes (MDTE) during a period of 12 years. In almost every second patient with MDTE, at least one of the affected teeth had sustained repeated trauma episodes. The risk of sustaining MDTE increased when the first trauma episode occurred in the age interval of 6-10, compared to 11-18 year olds. During a 12-year period, treatment times for complicated traumas were 2.0 and 2.7 times higher for primary and permanent teeth, respectively, compared to corresponding values for uncomplicated traumas. On average, direct time (treatment time) represented 11% and 16% of the total time, while the direct costs (health are service, transport, loss of personal property and medicine) represented 60% and 72% of the total costs of traumas to primary and permanent teeth, respectively, during a 2-year period for cases of a nation-wide material.Conclusion: Dental traumas are frequent and some individuals are injured several times. Besides treatment time, efforts from the family are substantial in time and costs. Parameters such as degree of severity, access to treatment and place of injury are of major importance to both patient and family and should be considered when calculating time and costs of dental trauma in children and adolescents.
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| 69. |
- Golster, Helena
(författare)
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Regulation of Microvascular Blood Flow : a clinical and experimental study based on laser Doppler perfusion imaging
- 2001
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Local blood flow reflexes in the foot skin of healthy controls and in young diabetic patients with or without nerve dysfunction have been studied using laser Doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI). A neurophysiological follow-up study on nerve dysfunction is presented as a complerhent to the work on blood flow regulation in the young diabetics.An enhanced high-resolution LDPI (EHR-LDPI), intended for visualization and interpretation of flow dynamics in separate microvessels, has been adapted and evaluated in in vitro tube models and in an in vivo tissue model (hamster cheek pouch). By focusing the laser beam to 40 µm in the focal plane and reducing the step length to 25 µm, full format images (4096 measurement sites) of microvascular tissue areas as small as 1,5 x 1,5 mm were created.The objectives of the work were to study if the vasoconstrictor response seen during change in posture is a mechanism elicited by a rise in venous pressure, but also to investigate if young diabetic patients with nerve dysfunction have an impairment in the local regulation of foot skin blood flow (postural vasoconstriction and hyperemic response) compared to diabetics without nerve dysfunction. An additional aim was to elucidate whether abnormal nerve conduction is retarded or even prevented by tight metabolic control in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus.The experimental studies aimed to improve the resolution of the EHR-LDPI system, to evaluate the system flow response in an in vitro model and to evaluate the performance, the limitations and the future potentials by studying flow dynamics in a tissue containing separate microvessels. It was concluded that:(1) The LDPI recorded skin perfusion during variations in venous stasis and posture, adding information on flow distribution changes. The difference in flow distribution seen suggested an additive regulatory mechanism to a venoarteriolar reflex during change in posture.(2) Subclinical nerve conduction defects were more common than microvascular abnormalities as measured by LDPI in the present models in young diabetic patients. Although, no signs of established retinopathy or nephropathy in this patient group, resting skin blood flow abnormalities were present, and these findings were related to high HbA1c-levels.(3) Tight longwterm metabolic control, with HbA1c values less than 6,5%, could retard nerve dysfunction in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus and a mean disease duration of 12 years.(4) Using EHR-LDPI a decrease in signal level was obtained as the tube diameter increased, although the algorithm scaled linearly with velocity and was found not to be sensitive to hematocrit variations. Individual microvessel diameters could be estimated, which on average resulted in a difference of 11 µm compared to microscopic measurements.(5) A dynamic overview of the vascular tree with volumetric flow estimate as well as RBC velocities of separate vessels was obtained. The need for further focusing of the beam and reduction of the step length appeared to be important tasks to solve in order to get a more accurate vessel diameter determination and to refine the volumetric flow estimate.
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| 70. |
- Gradin, Maria, 1963-
(författare)
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Procedural pain reducing methods and pain assessment in newborns
- 2004
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Our knowledge of pain in neonates has increased significantly during the last fifteen years.We now have an improved understanding of the pain system and of the negative effects of untreated pain. Advances in neonatal care have increased the nwnber of preterm and severely ill infants who are treated in neonatal intensive care units (NICU). These infants are subjected to a variety of painful procedures as part of their management. Sufficient pain relief is needed and for this, valid pain assessment is one prerequisite.The aim of this research was to improve the management of procedural pain and to examine the assessment of neonatal pain in clinical practice.In an earlier study, oral glucose was found to reduce pain during blood sampling. To further evaluate the pain-reducing effect of oral glucose and to compare this effect with different blood sampling techniques, a trial was performed. The pain score was lower and crying time shorter in the venipuncture group than in the heel stick group when no glucose was given. When glucose was administered, the pain score was lower in both glucose groups than in the groups not receiving glucose (paper I).In a randomized, controlled study, the effect of oral glucose was compared with that of a topical local anaesthetic, EMLA, during venipuncture. The pain scores were found to be lower in the glucose group and fewer infants were scored as having pain. Crying time was also shorter in the glucose group (paper II).To compare the pain-reducing effect of oral glucose with that of breast-feeding shortly before venipuncture, a new trial was performed. The pain score was significantly lower in the infants receiving glucose than in those not given glucose. There was no significant difference in pain score between the infants who were fed and the fasting infants (paper III).In a previous study we found an increase in heart rate in newboms when they received glucose as pain relief. We therefore investigated whether oral glucose in itself could cause an increase in heart rate in healthy infants. In a trial, infants were randomized to receive oral glucose or placebo without undergoing any painful procedure. The heart rate was significantly higher in the glucose than in the placebo group (paper IV).Activation of endogenous opioids is suggested as one possible mechanism underlying the pain-reducing effect of oral glucose. We therefore investigated whether administration of an opioid antagonist would reduce the effect of oral glucose at heel stick in full-term newboms. There were no significant differences in pain score or crying between the group receiving an opioid antagonist before oral glucose and the group receiving placebo before oral glucose during heel stick (paper V).To document whether pain is assessed in Swedish neonatal units and by what methods, a questionnaire was distributed to all neonatal wards in Sweden in 1993, and again in 1998. Only a small proportion of neonatal units in Sweden attempted to assess pain. There was a minor increase in the nwnber of wards that used a structured method for pain scoring. Docwnentation of pain is still inadequate and needs to be improved (paper VI). We compared parental assessment during blood sampling with measurement of the pain score with a multidimensional tool and crying. There was low agreement between these variables during the procedure (paper III).In conclusion, we found that oral glucose reduces signs of pain from both heel stick and venipuncture blood sampling. Oral glucose reduces pain better than does EMLA cream and better than if the infant is breast-fed shortly before the procedure. Oral glucose increases the heart rate in infants and the pain-reducing effect of oral glucose in newboms was not diminished by injection of an opioid antagonist. Parental assessment of an infant's pain cannot replace measurement by pain scores. The pain assessment at neonatal units in Sweden needs to be improved.
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