| 1. |
- Neretnieks, Ivars
(författare)
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Saline groundwaters counteract up-flow of contaminants- implications for radionuclide repositories?
- 2024
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Ingår i: Journal of Contaminant Hydrology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0169-7722 .- 1873-6009. ; 262
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The high-level nuclear waste, HLW, from Swedish and Finnish reactors will be deposited in crystalline rock at depths around 500 m. The waste is enclosed in steel canisters protected against corrosion by a 5 cm thick copper shell, which ensures a lifetime far longer than 100 000 years. Should some canister be breached any leaking nuclides will have decayed to so low activity that even if they reached the biosphere, they would cause minimal risk to humans. The cost of the copper is significant. The dismantling of the nuclear reactors, with induced activity must also be disposed of and this waste volume is much larger than that of the HLW, which makes it impossible to protect it in the same way. This paper explores if by locating the waste at larger depth where the ground water is more saline, and where the hydraulic conductivity of the rock is lower up-flow of contaminated water can be ensured to be negligible because the denser water at larger depth counteracts up-flow due to negative buoyancy. Several processes that could cause local up-flow are addressed, such as infiltration of meteoric water, impact of surface topology, heat production of the waste, geothermal gradient, salinity gradient, hydraulic conductivity heterogeneities and salt migration between seeping water and salt in matrix pore water. Flow and transport simulations using data from extensive field investigations over more than ten years with scores of km deep boreholes suggest that a HLW repository at around one km depth may be sufficient to hinder up-flow to the biosphere.
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| 2. |
- Neretnieks, Ivars
(författare)
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Radionuclide Transport in Channel Networks with Radial Diffusion in the Porous Rock Matrix
- 2023
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Ingår i: Nuclear Technology. - : Informa UK Limited. - 0029-5450 .- 1943-7471. ; 209:4, s. 604-621
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Water flows in only a small fraction of the total area of the fractures in fractured rocks. The width of the “channels” is often in the range of centimeters to tens of centimeters. Nuclides can diffuse into and out of the porous rock matrix, which causes them to be significantly retarded compared to the water velocity. In discrete facture networks, diffusion is modeled to be linear and perpendicular to the fracture surface. From a narrow channel, the diffusion cloud would then be as wide as the channel. When the nuclide has propagated farther than the channel width, the diffusion will become essentially radial, which allows the nuclide flux to increase enormously. For the times of interest for a repository for high-level nuclide waste, this will increase nuclide flux into the matrix by tens to thousands of times, and consequently, the nuclide retardation in the flowing water. Radial diffusion was not invoked in the performance assessment of the Forsmark site, which in January 2022 was chosen by the government to locate Sweden’s high-level waste repository. It is shown, using data from this site, that the effect of radial diffusion from the narrow channels considerably increases the retardation of any escaping radionuclides, potentially allowing for the use of thinner copper canisters.
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| 3. |
- Soler, J. M., et al.
(författare)
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Predictive Modeling of a Simple Field Matrix Diffusion Experiment Addressing Radionuclide Transport in Fractured Rock. Is It So Straightforward?
- 2022
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Ingår i: Nuclear Technology. - : Informa UK Limited. - 0029-5450 .- 1943-7471. ; 208:6, s. 1059-1073
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The SKB GroundWater Flow and Transport of Solutes Task Force is an international forum in the area of conceptual and numerical modeling of groundwater flow and solute transport in fractured rocks relevant for the deep geological disposal of radioactive waste. Two in situ matrix diffusion experiments in crystalline rock (gneiss) were performed at POSIVA’s ONKALO underground facility in Finland. Synthetic groundwater containing several conservative and sorbing radiotracers was injected at one end of a borehole interval and flowed along a thin annulus toward the opposite end. Several teams performed predictive modeling of the tracer breakthrough curves using “conventional” modeling approaches (constant diffusion and sorption in the rock, no or minimum rock heterogeneity). Supporting information, derived from small-scale laboratory experiments, was provided. The teams were free to implement different concepts, use different codes, and apply the transport and retention parameters that they considered to be most suited (i.e., not a benchmark exercise). The main goal was the comparison of the different sets of results and the analysis of the possible differences for this relatively simple experimental setup with a well-defined geometry. Even though the experiment was designed to study matrix diffusion, the calculated peaks of the breakthrough curves were very sensitive to the assumed magnitude of dispersion in the borehole annulus. However, given the very different timescales for advection and matrix diffusion, the tails of the curves provided information concerning diffusion and retention in the rock matrix regardless of the magnitude of dispersion. In addition, although the task was designed to be a blind modeling exercise, the model results have also been compared to the measured experimental breakthroughs. Experimental results tend to show relatively small activities, wide breakthroughs, and early first arrivals, which are somewhat similar to model results using large dispersivity values.
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| 4. |
- Soler, Josep, et al.
(författare)
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Modelling of the LTDE-SD radionuclide diffusion experiment in crystalline rock at the Aspo Hard Rock Laboratory (Sweden)
- 2022
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Ingår i: Geologica Acta. - : Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. - 1695-6133 .- 1696-5728. ; 20, s. 1-32
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This study shows a comparison and analysis of results from a modelling exercise concerning a field experiment involving the transport and retention of different radionuclide tracers in crystalline rock. This exercise was performed within the Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company (SKB) Task Force on Modelling of Groundwater Flow and Transport of Solutes (Task Force GWFTS). Task 9B of the Task Force GWFTS was the second subtask within Task 9 and focused on the modelling of experimental results from the Long Term Sorption Diffusion Experiment in situ tracer test. The test had been performed at a depth of about 410m in the Aspo Hard Rock Laboratory. Synthetic groundwater containing a cocktail of radionuclide tracers was circulated for 198 days on the natural surface of a fracture and in a narrow slim hole drilled in unaltered rock matrix. Overcoring of the rock after the end of the test allowed for the measurement of tracer distribution profiles in the rock from the fracture surface (A cores) and also from the slim hole (D cores). The measured tracer activities in the rock samples showed long profiles (several cm) for non-or weakly-sorbing tracers (Cl-36, Na-22), but also for many of the more strongly-sorbing radionuclides. The understanding of this unexpected feature was one of the main motivations for this modelling exercise. However, re-evaluation and revision of the data during the course of Task 9B provided evidence that the anomalous long tails at low activities for strongly sorbing tracers were artefacts due to cross-contamination during rock sample preparation. A few data points remained for Cs-137, Ba-133, Ni-63 and Cd-109, but most measurements at long distances from the tracer source (>10mm) were now below the reported detection limits. Ten different modelling teams provided results for this exercise, using different concepts and codes. The tracers that were finally considered were Na-22, Cl-36, Co-57, Ni-63, Ba-133, Cs-137, Cd-109, Ra-226 and Np-237. Three main types of models were used: i) analytical solutions to the transport-retention equations, ii) continuum -porous-medium numerical models, and iii) microstructure-based models accounting for small-scale heterogeneity (i.e. mineral grains, porosities and/or microfracture distributions) and potential centimetre-scale fractures. The modelling by the different teams led to some important conclusions, concerning for instance the presence of a disturbed zone (a few mm in thickness) next to the fracture surface and to the wall of the slim hole and the role of micro-fractures and cm-scale fractures in the transport of weakly sorbing tracers. These conclusions could be reached after the re-evaluation and revision of the experimental data (tracer profiles in the rock) and the analysis of the different sets of model results provided by the different teams.
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| 5. |
- Huber, Florian M., et al.
(författare)
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Impact of rock fracture geometry on geotechnical barrier integrity - A numerical study
- 2021
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Ingår i: International Journal of Rock Mechanics And Mining Sciences. - : Elsevier BV. - 1365-1609 .- 1873-4545. ; 142
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The effect of fracture geometry on bentonite erosion for a generic repository site in crystalline host rock environment was investigated by means of 2-d numerical simulations. Fracture geometry was varied systematically using random aperture normal distributions with a mean aperture of 1 mm and standard deviations between 0 and 0.7 mm, respectively. Moreover, two aperture correlation lengths (0.2 m and 2 m) were applied. Based on the synthetic fracture aperture fields generated the cubic law in conjunction with the Darcy equation is used to simulate fracture flow fields for mean flow velocities in the fracture between 1 x 10(-5) m/s and 1 x 10(-7) m/s. These flow fields are used in a two-way coupling approach to bentonite erosion simulations. The results of the study clearly show the influence of variable fracture aperture on bentonite erosion behaviour and erosion rates (kg/a). Increasing fracture aperture standard deviation leads to increasing heterogeneous flow velocity distributions governing the erosion behaviour and erosion rates. Calculated steady state erosion rates are in the range of similar to 0.25 kg/a down to similar to 0.014 kg/a. The highest erosion rate is calculated for the highest mean flow velocity in conjunction with the highest standard deviation. The effect of aperture heterogeneity diminishes for the lowest flow velocities. In summary, the results show the effect of fracture heterogeneity on bentonite erosion, especially for high to medium mean flow velocities combined with high to medium fracture heterogeneity under the model boundary conditions and model capabilities and limitations considered. An increase of up to g heterogeneous flow velocity distributions governing the erosion behaviour and erosion rates. Calculated steady state erosion rates are in the range of similar to 83% in erosion rate compared to the constant aperture case highlights the need to consider fracture aperture heterogeneity and its effect on the bentonite erosion in the assessment of the safety and evolution of a high-level nuclear waste repository.
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| 6. |
- Meng, Shuo
(författare)
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Solute transport in fractured rocks : Analysis of analytical solutions and determination of transport parameters
- 2020
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In order to facilitate the assessment of the safety and function of deep geological repositories for radioactive waste, several models have been developed to describe water flow and transport of solutes in fractured crystalline rock. The rock around the repository is described and modelled as a network of water-bearing fractures.The first part of the work concerns analytical solutions of the mathematical models, first developed in the 1980s to describe nuclide transport with seeping water in the fractures where the nuclides can also diffuse in and out of the pores into the rock matrix. A new simple analytical solution is described in which the interaction between matrix diffusion and hydrodynamic dispersion could be decoupled, which makes the interaction between the processes visible while making the solution more manageable. In addition, another dispersion mechanism caused by the presence of independent transport paths is easily handled with the new model. This makes it possible to treat both dispersion mechanisms with the same formalism. This makes the new model more useful in interpreting field experiments with tracer as well as for long-term simulation of nuclide migration in rock.The second part of the work is about molecular diffusion in the rock matrix itself, which is a central mechanism in the model above. One way to measure diffusion and sorption in rock pieces is to force ions through the pores of the rock by means of electromigration. The method previously used has been improved by adding a potentiostat and a pH buffer. The experimental results become more stable.To better interpret the results, a general model for transport in the rock matrix was developed. The model includes electromigration, electroosmosis and dispersion in the pore system. The effective pore diffusivity and matrix formation factor can be determined from the experiments. The results show that the developed electromigration method can be used to provide high quality experimental data.
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| 7. |
- Winberg-Wang, Helen, et al.
(författare)
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Visualization of Mass Transfer Between Source and Seeping Water in a Variable Aperture Fracture–Impact of Tracer Density
- 2020
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Ingår i: Nuclear Technology. - : Taylor and Francis Inc.. - 0029-5450 .- 1943-7471.
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- An experiment with a vertical slot with horizontally seeping water with a dye diffusing from below was performed to help validate and visualize the Q-equivalent model, which describes the mass transfer rate from a source into flowing water, such as that in a repository for nuclear waste. The Q-equivalent model is used for quantifying mass transport in geological repositories. However, the tracer propagated much slower and to a lesser extent than predicted by the model. It was found that the tracer gave rise to a small density gradient that induced buoyancy-driven flow, overwhelming that driven by the horizontal hydraulic gradient. This dramatically changed the mass transfer from the dye source into the water in the slot. For the release of contaminants, this can have detrimental as well as beneficial effects, depending on whether positive or negative buoyancy is induced. These observations led to an analysis of when and how density differences in a repository can influence the release and further fate of escaping radionuclides in waste repositories. This and other experiments also showed that laboratory experiments aimed at visualizing flow and mass transfer processes in fractures could be very sensitive to the heating of the dye tracers by the lighting in the laboratory.
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| 8. |
- Winberg-Wang, Helen, 1988-
(författare)
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Water density impact on water flow and mass transport in rock fractures
- 2020
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- One way of taking care of spent nuclear fuel is to place it in a geological repository. In Sweden, a three-barrier system is planned. The system is based on encapsulating the fuel in copper canisters. These are surrounded by bentonite clay and buried under 500 m of bedrock. As a part of the safety assessment, the Q-equivalent model is used to quantify the possible release of radioactive material. This model also describes the rate at which corrosive agents carried by seeping water in rock fractures can reach the canisters, which may affect the longevity of the canisters.The aim of this thesis was originally to develop an experimental, phys- ical model to visualize and validate the Q-equivalent model. However, the overarching theme of this work has been to study the effect of minor density differences that might be overlooked in experiments, both concentration- dependent and density-difference induced by light absorption.In the initial diffusion and flow-experiment and associated calculations and simulations, it was found that simple Q-equivalent can describe and quantify the mass transport in both parallel and variable aperture fractures. However, this is the case only if the density difference between seeping water and clay pore water is insignificant. It was found in experiments with dyes used to visualise the flow and diffusion patterns that even minimal density differences could significantly alter the flow pattern. Density differences can result from concentration gradients or be induced by light absorption. TheQ-equivalent model was extended to account for density-induced flow. The importance of density-induced flow due to concentration gradients at the setting of a long-term repository for nuclear waste was evaluated. It was found that concentration gradients are able to induce rapid vertical up- or downward flow. This could increase the overall mass transport of radioactive material up to the biosphere or carry it downward to larger depths.
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| 9. |
- Neretnieks, Ivars, et al.
(författare)
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Density-Driven Mass Transfer in Repositories for Nuclear Waste
- 2019
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Ingår i: Nuclear Technology. - : Taylor & Francis. - 0029-5450 .- 1943-7471. ; 205:6, s. 819-829
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In geologic repositories for nuclear waste located in crystalline rocks, the waste is surrounded by a bentonite buffer that in practice is not permeable to water flow. The nuclides must escape by molecular diffusion to enter the seeping water in the fractures of the rock. At high water-seepage rates, the nuclides can be carried away rapidly. The seepage rate of the water can be driven by the regional hydraulic gradient as well as by buoyancy-driven flow. The latter is induced by thermal circulation of the water by the heat produced by radionuclide decay. The circulation may also be induced by salt exchange between buffer and water in the fractures. The main aim of this paper is to explore how salt exchange between the backfill and mobile water in fractures, by buoyancy effects, can increase the escape rate of radionuclides from a repository. A simple analytical model has been developed to describe the mass transfer rate induced by buoyancy. Numerical simulations support the simple solution. A comparison is made with the regional gradient-driven flow model. It is shown that buoyancy-driven flow can noticeably increase the release rate.
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| 10. |
- Shahkarami, Pirouz, et al.
(författare)
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Channel network concept : an integrated approach to visualize solute transport in fractured rocks
- 2019
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Ingår i: Hydrogeology Journal. - : Springer. - 1431-2174 .- 1435-0157. ; 27:1, s. 101-119
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The advection-dispersion equation, ADE, has commonly been used to describe solute transport in fractured rock. However, there is one key question that must be addressed before the mathematical form of the so-called Fickian dispersion that underlies the ADE takes on physical meaning in fractures. What is the required travel distance, or travel time, before the Fickian condition is met and the ADE becomes physically reasonable? A simple theory is presented to address this question in tapered channels. It is shown that spreading of solute under forced-gradient flow conditions is mostly dominated by advective mechanisms. Nevertheless, the ADE might be valid under natural flow conditions. Furthermore, several concerns are raised in this paper with regard to using the concept of a field-scale matrix diffusion coefficient in fractured rocks. The concerns are mainly directed toward uncertainties and potential bias involved in finding the continuum model parameters. It is illustrated that good curve fitting does not ensure the physical reasonability of the model parameters. It is suggested that it is feasible and adequate to describe flow and transport in fractured rocks as taking place in three-dimensional networks of channels, as embodied in the channel network concept. It is argued that this conceptualization provides a convenient framework to capture the impacts of spatial heterogeneities in fractured rocks and can accommodate the physical mechanisms underlying the behavior of solute transport in fractures. All these issues are discussed in relation to analyzing and predicting actual tracer tests in fractured crystalline rocks.
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