| 1. |
- Ketzel, M, et al.
(författare)
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Particle and trace gas emission factors under urban driving conditions in Copenhagen based on street and roof-level observations
- 2003
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Ingår i: Atmospheric Environment. - 1352-2310. ; 37:20, s. 2735-2749
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Simultaneous measurements of particle size distribution (size/range 10-700 nm) inside an urban street canyon and a nearby urban background location in Copenhagen in May-November 2001 were used to separate the traffic source contribution in the street canyon from the background levels. The background concentrations are highly variable due to changing contributions from long-range transport and local sources showing a diurnal pattern with a shift to smaller particle sizes during midday hours. The average ratio background/street concentration is 0.26 for NOx and 0.35, 0.42, 0.60, 0.64, respectively, for CO, total particle number (ToN), surface and volume. The particle size distribution of the traffic source shows during daytime and evening hours (6-24) a maximum at particle sizes of 20-30 nm independent of the changing heavy-duty vehicle share during the same time interval. The particle number concentration highly correlated (R > 0.83) with NOx through a wide range of particle sizes. The method of inverse modelling was applied to estimate average fleet emission factors typical of urban conditions in Denmark. Emission factors per average vehicle were estimated as (2.8 +/- 0.5) x 10(14) particles/km, (1.3 +/- 0.2) g NOx/(veh km) and (11 +/- 2) g CO/(veh km). We observe two types of 'nanoparticle events' (a) in background, probably due to photochemistry and (b) in the night hours when traffic is dominated by diesel taxis. During night hours (0-5), the maximum in the emitted particle size distribution, is shifted to smaller sizes of about 15-18 nm. This shift to smaller particle sizes is related to an increase in the average NOx and ToN emission per vehicle by a factor of 2-3 and a reduced CO emission also by a factor of 2-3. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 2. |
- Denby, B. R., et al.
(författare)
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Road salt emissions : A comparison of measurements and modelling using the NORTRIP road dust emission model
- 2016
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Ingår i: Atmospheric Environment. - : Elsevier Ltd. - 1352-2310 .- 1873-2844. ; 141, s. 508-522
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- De-icing of road surfaces is necessary in many countries during winter to improve vehicle traction. Large amounts of salt, most often sodium chloride, are applied every year. Most of this salt is removed through drainage or traffic spray processes but a certain amount may be suspended, after drying of the road surface, into the air and will contribute to the concentration of particulate matter. Though some measurements of salt concentrations are available near roads, the link between road maintenance salting activities and observed concentrations of salt in ambient air is yet to be quantified. In this study the NORTRIP road dust emission model, which estimates the emissions of both dust and salt from the road surface, is applied at five sites in four Nordic countries for ten separate winter periods where daily mean ambient air measurements of salt concentrations are available. The model is capable of reproducing many of the salt emission episodes, both in time and intensity, but also fails on other occasions. The observed mean concentration of salt in PM10, over all ten datasets, is 4.2 μg/m3 and the modelled mean is 2.8 μg/m3, giving a fractional bias of −0.38. The RMSE of the mean concentrations, over all 10 datasets, is 2.9 μg/m3 with an average R2 of 0.28. The mean concentration of salt is similar to the mean exhaust contribution during the winter periods of 2.6 μg/m3. The contribution of salt to the kerbside winter mean PM10 concentration is estimated to increase by 4.1 ± 3.4 μg/m3 for every kg/m2 of salt applied on the road surface during the winter season. Additional sensitivity studies showed that the accurate logging of salt applications is a prerequisite for predicting salt emissions, as well as good quality data on precipitation. It also highlights the need for more simultaneous measurements of salt loading together with ambient air concentrations to help improve model parameterisations of salt and moisture removal processes. © 2016 The Authors
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| 3. |
- Ketzel, M., et al.
(författare)
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Estimation and validation of PM2.5/PM10 exhaust and non-exhaust emission factors for practical street pollution modelling
- 2007
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Ingår i: Atmos. Environ.. - : Elsevier BV. ; 41, s. 9370-9385
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In order to carry out efficient traffic and air quality management, validated models and PM emission estimates are needed. This paper compares current available emission factor estimates for PM10 and PM2.5 from emission databases and different emission models, and validates these against eight high quality street pollution measurements in Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Finland and Austria.The data sets show large variation of the PM concentration and emission factors with season and with location. Consistently at all roads the PM10 and PM2.5 emission factors are lower in the summer month than the rest of the year. For example, PM10 emission factors are in average 5–45% lower during the month 6–10 compared to the annual average.The range of observed total emission factors (including non-exhaust emissions) for the different sites during summer conditions are 80–130 mg km−1 for PM10, 30–60 mg km−1 for PM2.5 and 20–50 mg km−1 for the exhaust emissions.We present two different strategies regarding modelling of PM emissions: (1) For Nordic conditions with strong seasonal variations due to studded tyres and the use of sand/salt as anti-skid treatment a time varying emission model is needed. An empirical model accounting for these Nordic conditions was previously developed in Sweden. (2) For other roads with a less pronounced seasonal variation (e.g. in Denmark, Germany, Austria) methods using a constant emission factor maybe appropriate. Two models are presented here.Further, we apply the different emission models to data sets outside the original countries. For example, we apply the “Swedish” model for two streets without studded tyre usage and the “German” model for Nordic data sets. The “Swedish” empirical model performs best for streets with studded tyre use, but was not able to improve the correlation versus measurements in comparison to using constant emission factors for the Danish side. The “German” method performed well for the streets without clear seasonal variation and reproduces the summer conditions for streets with pronounced seasonal variation. However, the seasonal variation of PM emission factors can be important even for countries not using studded tyres, e.g. in areas with cold weather and snow events using sand and de-icing materials. Here a constant emission factor probably will under-estimate the 90-percentiles and therefore a time varying emission model need to be used or developed for such areas.All emission factor models consistently indicate that a large part (about 50–85% depending on the location) of the total PM10 emissions originates from non-exhaust emissions. This implies that reduction measures for the exhaust part of the vehicle emissions will only have a limited effect on ambient PM10 levels.
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| 4. |
- Ketzel, M, et al.
(författare)
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Modelling the fate of ultrafine particles from exhaust pipe to rural background: an analysis of time scales for dilution, coagulation and deposition
- 2004
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Ingår i: Atmospheric Environment. - : Elsevier BV. - 1352-2310. ; 38:17, s. 2639-2652
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We investigate the time scales of various dynamic processes during the evolution of the particle size distribution from its emission from a vehicle exhaust pipe through its dilution at kerbside and urban level. In addition, the situation in a road tunnel or near a highway is discussed. The derived formula framework allows the estimation of approximated time scales based on a given particle size distribution for the processes dilution with background air, coagulation, deposition and condensation. The variation of the time scales for these processes with "lifetime" of the exhaust particles and the dependence of the time scales on the particle size is shown. We identify the spatial or temporal scales under which the discussed processes are important and have to be included in operational particle pollution models. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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