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Sökning: Nicaragua > (2005-2009) > (2005)

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1.
  • Valladares Cardoza, Eliette, 1963- (författare)
  • Partner violence during pregnancy, psychosocial factors and child outcomes in Nicaragua
  • 2005
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • The objectives of the thesis was to explore partner violence during pregnancy in Nicaragua – its prevalence and characteristics, how women perceive, understand and cope with it, its association with specific child outcomes such as low birth weight (LBW), small for gestational age (SGA) and preterm birth, and possible pathways. A cross-sectional community-based study was conducted with 478 pregnant women and for a sub-sample of 147 salivary cortisol was measured. A case-referent hospital-based study was organized including 303 mothers immediately after delivery. In-depth interviews were conducted with women survivors to increase understanding of partner violence during pregnancy. The prevalence of emotional, physical and sexual partner abuse during pregnancy was 32.4%, 13.4% and 6.7% respectively. Seventeen percent of the victims suffered all three types of violence and in two thirds the abuse was severe and repeated. Half of the abused women had experienced punches and kicks directed to the abdomen; however, only 14% had sought health care and very few had disclosed the abuse or contacted police or authorities. Adolescent mothers, unwanted pregnancy and late registration for antenatal care or no check-ups were more likely among victims. The access to social resources facilitated the women’s ability to cope with the abuse, but the pregnancy itself was a barrier to receiving support from family, friends or society. The ability to confront abuse was determined by a complex interplay of factors such as economic independence, severity of abuse, access to social resources, implications for important others (i.e. children), socioeconomic group and a personal ability to cope with social norms. Low social resources, high levels of emotional distress and attempted suicide were associated with violence during pregnancy. Abuse during pregnancy was also found as an independent risk factor for LBW. Sixteen percent of LBW was attributed to physical abuse by a partner during pregnancy. A significant association between abuse during the index pregnancy and SGA was found. Partner violence during the pregnancy, low social resources and emotional distress were associated with higher levels of salivary cortisol. Pregnant women with high cortisol values were significantly more likely to give birth to SGA babies. A substantial decrease of birthweight, 142 grams, was estimated to be associated with increases in cortisol due to violence exposure. Partner violence during pregnancy is a serious social problem that impacts the rights, health and wellbeing of both the woman and her unborn child. The studies call for prioritization of intervention programmes for prevention and detection of violence, treatment and rehabilitation of the victims and the perpetrators, and change of the structural causes producing violence in society.
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2.
  • Valladares, Eliette, et al. (författare)
  • Violence against pregnant women : prevalence and characteristics. A population-based study in Nicaragua.
  • 2005
  • Ingår i: British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. - : Wiley. - 1470-0328 .- 1471-0528. ; 112:9, s. 1243-1248
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • OBJECTIVE: This study aims to estimate the prevalence and characteristics of partner abuse during pregnancy as well as to investigate associated social factors in León, Nicaragua. DESIGN: Cross-sectional community-based study. SETTING: All pregnant women from 50 randomly selected geographical clusters out of 208 in the municipality of León, Nicaragua. SAMPLE: A total of 478 pregnant women were included; only one woman refused to participate. METHOD: The domestic violence questionnaire from the WHO-co-ordinated Multi-Country Study on Women's Health and Life Events was used with each participant being interviewed twice during pregnancy. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalence and characteristics of partner violence during pregnancy. RESULTS: The prevalence of emotional, physical and sexual abuse during pregnancy was 32.4%, 13.4% and 6.7%, respectively. Seventeen percent reported experience of all three forms of violence. Two-thirds of the victims reported repeated abuse. Half of the abused women had experienced punches and kicks directed towards the abdomen and 93% had been injured. Most women had not sought health care in relation to the abuse, but those who did were usually hospitalised. Factors such as women's age below 20 years, poor access to social resources and high levels of emotional distress were independently associated with violence during pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Violence against pregnant women in Nicaragua is common and often repeated. Although these women have poor access to social resources and high levels of emotional distress, they are rarely assisted by the health services. Innovative strategies are needed to provide support and counselling.
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3.
  • Nilsson, Manuela (författare)
  • The Role of Universities in Peacebuilding : A Nicaraguan Case Study
  • 2005
  • Ingår i: Revista Encuentro. - Managua, Nicaragua : Universidad Centroamericana. - 0424-9674. ; 71, s. 78-93
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • A pesar de que la comunidad internacional ha comenzado a reconocer la necesidad de utilizar actores locales de la sociedad civil en el proceso de construcción de la paz en sociedades que han pasado recientemente por un conflicto armado, el potencial de las universidades como socios locales ha sido pasado por alto. Esta investigación analiza el papel que las universidades pueden jugar en los procesos de transformación de conflictos y la construcción de la paz, utilizando el involucramiento de las universidades en Nicaragua como estudio de caso. El trabajo demuestra las ventajas de utilizar a la comunidad universitaria y analiza las diferentes maneras de su involucramiento activo, tanto en cooperación con los organismos internacionales como en iniciativas independientes. También discute las limitaciones de su desempeño y finaliza con las lecciones aprendidas en el estudio del involucramiento de las universidades nicaragüenses en la construcción de la paz.
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4.
  • Cuadra, Steven (författare)
  • Child labour and health hazards: chemical exposure and occupational injuries in Nicaraguan children working in a waste disposal site
  • 2005
  • Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • About 600 children and teenagers work at Managua's landfill, the largest in Nicaragua. They collect and sort waste at the open dump, which covers an area of 7 km2 on the outskirts of the city on the shores of Lake Managua. Such work, which occurs in many large cities in developing countries, is considered to be one of the riskiest types of child labor that exists. Nevertheless, knowledge of such work and its risks is lacking.We investigated chemical exposure and risk of injury among 103 child laborers aged 6 to 15 years from Managua's landfill. Almost half of the children also lived in the dump area itself, while the rest lived in a nearby area, Acahualinca. For comparison, 102 children from Acahualinca and 34 children from central Managua, 10 km away, who did not work at the dump, were also studied. This provided the opportunity to also study the environmental exposure from the landfill. The children were interviewed about living conditions, working conditions, and all injuries that occurred at workplaces, at school, and at home during the last 12 months. They had to provide blood samples for examination of the levels of, among other things, heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium, and persistent organic environmental toxins such as pesticides and PCBs. We also investigated the levels of a relatively new organic environmental poison, the brominated flame retardant PBDE. At a later stage, soil samples were also collected from the landfill area and from Acahualinca for investigation of metal content.The children who worked at the landfill had higher levels of lead, mercury, and cadmium than the children in the comparison groups. One-third had blood lead levels higher than 100 μg/l, a level where measures to reduce exposure are clearly recommended. We also found that the children in the nearby residential area had higher lead levels than the children from central Managua. Although mercury levels were higher among the child workers, the levels were not such that they could be considered a present and clear health risk. Consumption of fish from Lake Managua only slightly affected mercury levels. The levels of several of the organic environmental toxins, especially PCBs, were also higher among the child workers than in the comparison groups. We know that PCBs, which have long been banned in the West, are still used in Central America, or stored in uncontrolled forms. The children in the comparison groups also had clearly higher levels of a breakdown product of the pesticide DDT and of PCBs than children in the USA and Western Europe. The levels of these substances are steadily decreasing in the Western world. There is extremely limited knowledge of how the development over time looks like in Central and Latin America because too few surveys have been carried out. Unexpectedly, we found extremely high levels of PBDEs among the children living and working at the dump, higher than previously reported. The children in the comparison groups also had unexpectedly high levels of these substances. This is the first investigation of human PBDE levels in Central and Latin America, and the findings clearly show that it is extremely important to study the spread of the new environmental toxins also in non-industrialized countries and among particularly vulnerable groups. Several of the different substances that we studied are toxic to reproduction, and they can negatively affect human reproduction and fetal development. It would therefore have been desirable to be able to make a balanced risk assessment, but this is not possible because there is a lack of knowledge about the synergistic effects of the substances, and especially about how other factors such as inadequate nutrition can further affect the risk picture. What is clear, however, is that the levels we found among the children are significant from a reproductive perspective, as many of the girls we surveyed will be mothers in a few years - a fifth of Managua's teenagers are pregnant or have given birth already.Injuries, which caused at least one day of absence from school or work, were seven times more common among the children working at the dump than among the children in the comparison groups. The vast majority of injuries occurred during work, corresponding to 2.2 injuries per 1000 working days. The children reported that approximately one in ten injuries had resulted in permanent disability or pain. We analyzed the injuries that occurred to clarify whether there were any clear injury patterns. Cuts and puncture wounds to the hands and feet in connection with material handling were most common and caused 70% of the injuries. This shows that simple protective measures – many children lack shoes and no one has gloves – could reduce the risk of injury. However, the most serious damage was caused by the vehicles at the dump.In our studies, we have wanted to measure exposure levels and quantify risks in order to clarify the situation of child workers, in the hope that increased knowledge and awareness can eventually contribute to change. We have also gained valuable knowledge about the levels of several common environmental toxins among ordinary poor city children in a developing country. This is something that has so far been too inadequately investigated.
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5.
  • Korsak, Larisa, et al. (författare)
  • Alternatives of Sludge Use in Nicaragua
  • 2005
  • Ingår i: Proceedings of the 27th Annual HWEA Conference "New Technical Knowledge for Clean Water".
  • Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)
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8.
  • García, Indiana, 1966- (författare)
  • Removal of natural organic matter by enhanced coagulation in Nicaragua
  • 2005
  • Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • The existence of trihalomethanes (THMs) in a drinking water plant of Nicaragua has been investigated in order to see whether the concentration exceeded the maximum contaminant level recommended by the environmental protection agency of the United States (USEPA) and the Nicaragua guidelines. The influence of pH, temperature, chlorine dose and contact time on the formation of THMs were studied. The contents of organic matter measured by surrogate parameters such as total organic carbon, dissolved organic carbon, ultraviolet absorbance and specific ultraviolet absorbance were also determined in order to show which type of organic matter is most reactive with chlorine to form THMs. Models developed by other researchers to predict the formation of trihalomethanes were tested to see whether they can be used to estimate the trihalomethane concentration. In addition, empirical models were development to predict the THM concentration of the drinking water plant analysed. The raw water was treated by conventional and enhanced coagulation and these processes were compared with regard to the removal of natural organic matter (NOM). The significance of the results was assessed using statistic procedures. The average concentration of THMs found at the facility is below the USEPA and Nicaragua guideline values. Nevertheless the maximum contaminant level set by USEPA is sometimes exceeded in the rainy season when the raw water is rich in humic substances. Comparison between the water treated by conventional and enhanced coagulation shows that enhanced coagulation considerably diminished the trihalomethane formation and the value after enhanced coagulation never exceeded the guidelines. This is because enhanced coagulation considerably decreases the organic matter due to the high coagulant dose applied. The study of the trihalomethane formation when varying pH, time, temperature and chlorine dose using water treated by conventional and enhanced coagulation showed that higher doses of chlorine, higher pH, higher temperature and a longer time increases the formation of THMs. However, combinations of two and three factors are the opposite. The predicted THM formation equations cannot be used for the water at this facility, since the results shown that the measured THM differs significantly from the THM concentration predicted. Two empirical models were developed from the data for enhanced coagulation, using linear and non-linear regression. These models were tested using the database obtained with conventional coagulation. The non-linear model was shown to be able to predict the formation of THMs in the Boaco drinking water plant.
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9.
  • Alänge, Sverker, 1951, et al. (författare)
  • Innovation Systems in Latin America: Examples from Honduras, Nicaragua and Bolivia
  • 2005
  • Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • The main purpose of the study was to identify and analyze the current status of local innovation and cluster activities in three Latin American countries, Bolivia, Honduras and Nicaragua. This included the goals to identify key stakeholders active in innovation and to analyze the relationships between the various stakeholder and cluster groups. More specifically we were also interested in analyzing the university’s role in innovation activities. Finally, our aim was to identify supports and hinders to innovation activities and the emergence of innovation clusters. The cluster model (based on Sölvell et al. 2003) that was used for analysis was a good starting point – but not sufficient. We needed to adjust and adapt it during our research process and had to add 4 key stakeholders which were missing: Unions; Aid community; Development banks; and Indigenous communities. Using our interview data from Bolivia, Honduras and Nicaragua for the analysis, it was found that there were many similarities across the three countries. There is limited sharing of research results and lack of diffusion of competence, learning and know-how. There is a lack of research culture (incentives, funding) and research and science is not on the national agenda or connected to industry. Limited resources, risk avoidance and low esteem in locally grown inhibit local innovation and entrepreneurship. Intellectual property rights (IPR) are poorly developed and lack links to business development.Public universities have most of the state research money as well as money from donors but have very limited contact with industry and there is a lack of trust. Some great examples of research being conducted were identified where financing for research and advanced degrees had been provided by international donor organisations. However, the researchers act as islands so research is not visible even internally at the universities. There is a lack of research culture where teachers have no time for research, and promotion/prestige does not value research. The research that exists is not linked to the market and there is no commercialization of research. Private universities are a recent phenomenon, during the last 10 years, primarily focused on education and typically with excellent contacts with industry, but with a few exceptions, without any research tradition. A few examples of well-functioning and market driven research institutes were identified. Industry is in general not making innovation and do not budget for innovation and R & D activities, although we found good examples of innovative activities in all three countries - primarily in organisation innovation and product innovation. Government policies and institutions for Innovation, Science and Technology are either non-existent or weak. Some innovative approaches were identified, e.g. in bidding system to link suppliers and producers in agro business (Bolivia), financing innovation in SMEs and support to cluster development (Nicaragua) and financing of micro businesses (Bolivia, Nicaragua). In the financial sector, traditional banks do not support SMEs and do not give loans for innovation. Instead, international donor agencies are important actors when it comes to financing, but they have their own agendas, which do not necessarily coincide with National goals. Various types of organizations, including NGOs, perform the role of linking organizations and the services provided can include financing which make them a stronger player. Laws and regulations are sometimes creating disincentives for local entrepreneurs, for example tax incentives for foreign investment, Tax free zones create islands of industry, without interaction with the local business or society. The Intellectual Property systems are weak with limited capacity to evaluate intellectual assets, mainly foreigners (90%) apply for patents and universities offer no courses or information to students or teachers on IP and IP processes. The above study provided input for an action learning project with the main goal of introducing and developing a process that will increase awareness, cooperation and debate on the role and opportunity that ‘innovation clusters’ may have in the development of innovations. A sub-goal was to increase the connectivity between the key stakeholders active in innovation activities both locally in within the wider region. As part of this action learning project various stakeholders were invited to meet and discuss the preliminary findings in a workshop at the end of our visit to each of the Latin American countries. Finally, a group of stakeholders from each country were invited to participate in the 7th Global Innovation Cluster Conference in Ottawa, Canada.
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10.
  • Aragón, Aurora (författare)
  • Dermal exposure to pesticides in Nicaragua : a qualitative and quantitative approach
  • 2005
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • Background: Pesticide use continues to be a serious public health problem in developing countries, despite decades of safe pesticide use strategies. In Nicaragua, organophosphate insecticides, in particular chlorpyrifos and methamidophos are responsible for about half of the acute pesticide poisonings. Contamination of the skin occurs frequently in the occupational setting. There is extensive research to improve methods to assess dermal exposure. The applicability and feasibility of such methods in developing countries is uncertain. Aim: This thesis aims at increasing the understanding of risk factors underlying exposure, evaluating dermal exposure among Nicaraguan subsistence farmers, and proposing more suitable methods for developing country conditions. Methods: A group of 29 subsistence farmers were interviewed in four focus groups and their responses were analyzed using grounded theory. Field data for semi-quantitative and quantitative exposure measurements of 31 farmers were collected during 33 pesticide applications, using observation, supplementary video recording, a fluorescent tracer, and skin wiping. A visual scoring system developed in the US was modified into a Nicaraguan Visual Scoring System suitable for developing country conditions. Pesticides were traced during application. Skin fluorescence was videotaped in a foldaway darkened room which was later measured through Body Segment Scores (BSS), Contaminated Body Area (CBA) and Total Visual Score (TVS). TVS was used as a criterion indicator for the identification of main exposure determinants by observation. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed. Hundred and ten potential exposure determinants were reduced to 27 variables grouped as worksite, spray equipment, work practices, clothing, and hygiene practices. Reliability of the visual score was tested with intraclass correlation coefficients, in a sub-sample of five farmers evaluated by five raters. Observations of hand exposure events (direct and indirect contacts) were summarized into a Concentrate Contamination Index (CCI) and a Solution Contamination Index (SCI). Chemical residues were quantified for the hands and selected body parts according to fluorescent intensities. Spearman rank correlation coefficients were computed to compare the observational indices (CCI+SCI), fluorescent visual scores and quantitative residues. Results: Reasons for unsafe practices were connected with poverty, inadequacy of personal protective equipment, climatic factors, and limited knowledge influenced by beliefs and traditions. Farmers felt affection towards their traditional crops and this relationship seemed to have strong meanings for pest removal and pesticide use, contributing to dangerous work practices. The observed fluorescent images on the skin of farmers reflected work practices and contamination mechanisms and pathways. Novel determinants included spraying on a muddy terrain, dew on plants, sealing of tank lids with a cloth, and wiping sweat from the face. The Visual Scoring System was highly consistent (Cronbach alpha = 0.96) and reasonably reliable (0.75; 95% CI: 0.62-0.83), with scoring of extent being more reliable than scoring of intensity. The highest CBA was 66% and the farmer with the highest TVS scored 60% of the maximum possible. Hands were most frequently contaminated and the back had the highest BSS. Hand contact was most frequently indirect, by touching contaminated surfaces. All farmers had quantifiable pesticide residues on their hands. Spearman correlation coefficients between the observational contamination scores, fluorescent visual scores and residues in relation to the hands ranged from 0.65 to 0.74 for chlorpyrifos and 0.62 to 0.87 for methamidophos. Differences in scores could be explained by limitations of the different methods. Conclusions: Poverty and cultural factors contribute to pesticide use and unsafe use conditions. Education programs should be culturally appropriate to achieve pesticide exposure reduction. Each method studied in this thesis can be used independently. However, they can also complement each other, providing a better understanding of the mechanisms of skin exposure. With further improvements, a combination of observation and fluorescent visual scoring techniques, both lowcost and practical, would become highly accessible methods for surveillance and for epidemiological studies in developing countries.
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