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| 2. |
- Wallman, Carl-Gustaf, et al.
(author)
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Tema Vintermodell : etapp 2, huvudrapport
- 2006
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Syftet med Vintermodellen är att beräkna och värdera de väsentligaste konsekvenserna för trafikanter, väghållare och samhälle av olika strategier och åtgärder inom vinterväghållningen. Huvudrapporten är i sig en sammanfattning av de rapporter som beskriver Vintermodellens olika delmodeller. Navet i Vintermodellen är Väglagsmodellen, som utgående från väderdata, vidtagna väghållningsåtgärder och trafik beräknar väglaget timme för timme under vintersäsongen. Väglagsmodellen styr beräkningarna i de olika effektmodellerna: Olycksmodellen, Framkomlighetsmodellen, Fordonskostnadsmodellen, Miljömodellen och Modellen för väghållarkostnader. I Olycksmodellen beräknas olyckskvoter, olyckstyper och konsekvenser, allt kopplat till olika väglag och deras varaktigheter.I Framkomlighetsmodellen beräknas olika väglags effekt på medelhastigheter och restider.I Fordonskostnadsmodellen beräknas kostnader för bränsleförbrukning och korrosion på grund av vägsalt.I Miljömodellen beräknas konsekvenserna för vägnära vegetation av vägsalt.I Modellen för väghållarkostnader beräknas dels direkta kostnader för åtgärderna, dels kostnader för skador och slitage på beläggning, vägmarkeringar etc. som följd av vinterväghållningsåtgärder.
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| 3. |
- Andersson, Petra, et al.
(author)
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Investigation of fire emissions from Li-ion batteries
- 2013
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- This report presents an investigation on gases emitted during Lithium-ion battery fires. Details of the calibration of an FTIR instrument to measure HF, POF3 and PF5 gases are provided as background to the minimum detection limits for each species. The use of FTIR in tests has been verified by repeating experiments reported in the literature. The study reports on gases emitted both after evaporation and after ignition of the electrolyte fumes. Tests were conducted where electrolyte is injected into a propane flame and the influence of the addition of water is studied. Finally three types of battery cells were burnt and emission of fluorine and/or phosphorous containing species quantified.
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| 4. |
- Larsson, Carl Fredrik, 1980, et al.
(author)
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Gas emissions from Lithium-ion battery cells undergoing abuse from external fire
- 2016
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In: Fires in vehicles (FIVE) 2016 Conference proceedings. ; 2016, s. 253-256
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Conference paper (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Heat release rate, total heat released and toxic gas emissions were measured during exposure of commercial lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery cells to an external propane burner fire. Hydrogen fluoride (HF) was found in all tests and the released HF emissions measured via online FTIR range between 12-81 mg/Wh. Gas-washing bottles were used as a secondary measurement technique in one of the tests. The gas washing bottle and the FTIR measurements were in the same order of magnitude proving the usefulness of the FTIR technique even if there is an accumulation of HF in the filters used in the beginning of the test. The HF release for a large battery pack exposed to fire could thus in a worst case scenario result in a very large volume of toxic gases.
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| 5. |
- Andersson, Petra, et al.
(author)
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Using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to determine toxic gases in fires with lithium-ion batteries
- 2016
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In: Fire and Materials. - : Wiley. - 0308-0501 .- 1099-1018. ; 40:8, s. 999-1015
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Batteries, in particular lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, are seen as an alternative to fossil fuels in the automotive sector. Li-ion batteries, however, have some safety issues including possible emissions of toxic fluorine-containing compounds during fire and other abuse situations. This paper demonstrates the possibilities to use the Fourier transform infrared technique to assess some of the most important compounds, including hydrogen fluoride and the far less often measured POF3 and PF5. The study is conducted in the cone calorimeter with different solvents used in Li-ion batteries. The measurements show that, in addition to hydrogen fluoride, with a known high toxicity, POF3 is emitted and can be quantified using Fourier transform infrared.
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| 6. |
- Larsson, Carl Fredrik, 1980, et al.
(author)
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Characteristics of lithium-ion batteries during fire tests
- 2014
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In: Journal of Power Sources. - : Elsevier BV. - 0378-7753 .- 1873-2755. ; 271, s. 414-420
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Commercial lithium-ion battery cells are exposed to a controlled propane fire in order to evaluate heat release rate (HRR), emission of toxic gases as well as cell temperature and voltage under this type of abuse. The study includes six abuse tests on cells having lithium-iron phosphate (LFP) cathodes and, as a comparison, one test on conventional laptop battery packs with cobalt based cathode. The influence of different state of charge (SOC) is investigated and a limited study of the effect of water mist application is also performed. The total heat release (THR) per battery energy capacity are determined to be 28-75 kJ Wh(-1) and the maximum HRR values to 110-490 W Wh(-1). Hydrogen fluoride (HF) is found in the released gases for all tests but no traceable amounts of phosphorous oxyfluoride (POF3) or phosphorus pentafluoride (PF5) are detected. An extrapolation of expected HF emissions for a typical automotive 10 kWh battery pack exposed to fire gives a release of 400-1200 g HF. If released in a confined environment such emissions of HF may results in unacceptable exposure levels.
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| 7. |
- Larsson, Carl Fredrik, 1980, et al.
(author)
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Toxic fluoride gas emissions from lithium-ion battery fires
- 2017
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In: Scientific Reports. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 2045-2322 .- 2045-2322. ; 7:10018, s. 1-13
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Lithium-ion battery fires generate intense heat and considerable amounts of gas and smoke. Although the emission of toxic gases can be a larger threat than the heat, the knowledge of such emissions is limited. This paper presents quantitative measurements of heat release and fluoride gas emissions during battery fires for seven different types of commercial lithium-ion batteries. The results have been validated using two independent measurement techniques and show that large amounts of hydrogen fluoride (HF) may be generated, ranging between 20 and 200 mg/Wh of nominal battery energy capacity. In addition, 15–22 mg/Wh of another potentially toxic gas, phosphoryl fluoride (POF3), was measured in some of the fire tests. Gas emissions when using water mist as extinguishing agent were also investigated. Fluoride gas emission can pose a serious toxic threat and the results are crucial findings for risk assessment and management, especially for large Li-ion battery packs.
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