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| 2. |
- Ekelund, Maria, et al.
(författare)
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Evaporative loss kinetics of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) from pristine DEHP and plasticized PVC
- 2010
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Ingår i: Polymer degradation and stability. - : Elsevier BV. - 0141-3910 .- 1873-2321. ; 95:9, s. 1789-1793
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The migration of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) from poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) to a surrounding gas phase at temperatures below 120 degrees C kinetically is controlled by evaporation. The effects on the DEHP loss rate of nitrogen flow rate, relative humidity and degradation of the plasticizer at 100 degrees C was assessed. The sample mass decreased linearly with time for both pristine DEHP and plasticized PVC at comparable rates, suggesting that a thin film of DEHP was present on the jacketing insulation during desorption. The latter hypothesis was supported by infrared spectroscopy and by the fact that DEHP is an amphiphilic molecule that will tend to aggregate at the surface with the hydrophobic 2-ethylhexyl units at the air interface. The effect on the migration rate of moisture present in the gas phase was negligible. The DEHP loss rate increased in a retarding non-linear fashion with increasing gas flow rate. In one of the experiments, DEHP was accidently degraded as revealed by discoloration, the presence of low molar mass degradation products (liquid chromatography) containing additional carbonyl groups (infrared spectroscopy) and an increase in the evaporation rate at temperatures between 100 and 130 degrees C. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 3. |
- Ekelund, Maria, et al.
(författare)
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Lifetime prediction : different strategies by example
- 2009
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Ingår i: POLYMER DEGRADATION AND PERFORMANCE. - Washington, DC : American Chemical Society. - 9780841269781 ; , s. 159-169
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Two different approaches for lifetime prediction are presented. The underlying lifetime limiting processes have been identified in two cases. Mathematical expressions of chemical/physical relevance were used for the lifetime predictions for PE hot-water pipes and cables insulated with plasticized PVC. Accelerated testing, extrapolation and validation of the extrapolation by assessment of the remaining lifetime of objects aged during service conditions for 25 years were successfully applied to cables insulated with chlorosulfonated polyethylene. Polyolefin pipes exposed to chlorinated water showed a very complex deterioration scenario and it was only possible to find a method suitable for predicting the time for the depletion of the stabilizer system.
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| 4. |
- Ekelund, Maria, 1977-
(författare)
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Long-term performance of poly(vinyl chloride) cables : mechanical and electrical performances and the effect of plasticizer migration
- 2007
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Cables insulated with plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) were aged at temperatures between 80 and 180 °C in air and their conditions were assessed by indenter modulus measurements, tensile testing, infrared (IR) spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and liquid chromatography (HPLC). Electrical testing of oven-aged cable samples was performed in order to relate the electrical functionality during a high-energy line break accident to the mechanical properties and to establish a lifetime criterion. The mechanical data taken at room temperature after ageing could be superimposed with regard to ageing time and temperature. The ageing-temperature shift factor showed Arrhenius temperature dependence. The jacketing material showed an immediate increase in stiffness (indenter and Young’s modulus) and a decrease in the strain at break on ageing; these changes were dominated by loss of plasticizer by migration also confirmed by IR spectroscopy, DSC and HPLC. The core insulation showed smaller and also delayed changes in these mechanical parameters; the loss of plasticizer by migration was retarded by the closed environment and the changes in the mechanical parameters were due to chemical degradation (dehydrochlorination). Comparison with data obtained from this study and from other studies indicates that extrapolation of data for the jacketing insulation can be performed according to the Arrhenius equation even down to service temperatures (20-40 °C). Extraction of plasticizer of samples from cables that have been exposed to service for 25 years showed a minor decrease (within the margin of error) in plasticizer content with reference to that of unexposed cable samples. The low temperature deterioration of the jacketing is according to this scheme dominated by loss of plasticizer by migration. Numerical analysis were performed on desorption data obtained by liquid chromatography. The fitting of the data to Fick’s law showed a transition between 100 and 120 ºC. This was interpreted as a change from evaporation-control of migration at low temperatures to a diffusion-control of migration at the higher temperatures.
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| 5. |
- Ekelund, Maria, et al.
(författare)
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Long-term performance of poly(vinyl chloride) cables. Part 1 : Mechanical and electrical performances
- 2007
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Ingår i: Polymer degradation and stability. - : Elsevier BV. - 0141-3910 .- 1873-2321. ; 92:4, s. 617-629
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Cables insulated with plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) were aged in air at temperatures between 80 degrees C and 180 degrees C and their conditions were assessed by indenter modulus measurements, tensile testing, infrared (IR) spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Electrical testing of oven-aged cable samples was performed in order to relate the electrical functionality during a high-energy line break (HELB) to the mechanical properties and to establish a lifetime criterion. The mechanical data taken at room temperature after ageing could be superimposed with regard to ageing time and temperature. The ageing-temperature shift factor showed an Arrhenius temperature dependence. The jacketing material showed an immediate increase in stiffness (indenter modulus and Young's modulus) and a decrease in the strain at break on ageing; these changes were dominated by loss of plasticizer by migration which was confirmed by IR spectroscopy and DSC. The core insulation showed smaller changes in these mechanical parameters; the loss of plasticizer by migration was greatly retarded by the closed environment, according to data obtained by IR spectroscopy and DSC, and the changes in the mechanical parameters were due to chemical degradation (dehydrochlorination). A comparison of data obtained from this study and data from other studies indicates that extrapolation of data for the jacketing insulation can be performed according to the Arrhenius equation even down to service temperatures (20-50 degrees C). The low-temperature deterioration of the jacketing is, according to this scheme, dominated by loss of plasticizer by migration.
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| 6. |
- Ekelund, Maria, et al.
(författare)
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Long-term performance of poly(vinyl chloride) cables, Part 2 : Migration of plasticizer
- 2008
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Ingår i: Polymer degradation and stability. - : Elsevier BV. - 0141-3910 .- 1873-2321. ; 93:9, s. 1704-1710
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Cable samples with plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) insulations were aged in air at temperatures between 80 and 155 degrees C. The concentrations of the plasticizer (di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, DEHP) in the insulations of the aged cables were determined by extraction of samples in tetrahydrofuran followed by analysis of the extract by liquid chromatography. The plasticizer concentration data for different ageing times were analysed by numerical methods, fitting Fick's second law with a concentration-dependent diffusivity. The analysis showed that the transport of the plasticizer to the surrounding air phase was controlled by diffusion at 120 and 155 degrees C with an activation energy of 89 kJ mol(-1). The evaporation of the plasticizer from the outer boundary was rate controlling at lower temperatures (<= 100 degrees C), The rate of evaporation was initially constant and independent of the plasticizer concentration at both 80 and 100 degrees C. The activation energy for the initial DEHP loss rate from PVC at these temperatures was the same as that obtained for evaporation of pure DEHP on a glass plate at 60-100 degrees C measured by thermogravimetry, 98 2 kJ mol-1. Furthermore, the evaporation rate of pure DEHP on a glass plate was also of the same order of magnitude as the rate of plasticizer loss from the cable insulation. Extrapolation of the plasticizer loss rate data (from the cable at 80 degrees C and from pure liquid DEHP at temperatures between 60 and 100 IQ to 25 degrees C predicted a maximum loss of plasticizer of 1% over 25 years. This is in accordance with earlier presented data and with the data presented in this report.
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| 7. |
- Ekelund, Maria, 1977-
(författare)
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Long-term Performance of PVC and CSPE Cables used in Nuclear Power Plants : the Effect of Degradation and Plasticizer migration
- 2009
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Enormous amounts of low voltage cables installed in a Swedish nuclear power plant are reaching their expected lifetimes. Since the cables are crucial to operational safety, it is of great importance that the actual condition of the installed cables is determined. In this study, cables based on poly(vinyl chloride) plasticized with di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) were examined with respect to the degradation mechanisms responsible for the ageing of the insulation. This was achieved by studying samples that underwent accelerated ageing by different analytical methods, such as indenter modulus measurements, tensile testing, infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry and liquid chromatography, to assess the condition of the cables. The results were unambiguous; the main deterioration mechanism differed for the jacket and the core insulation. The immediate increase in stiffness of the jacket insulation suggests that loss of plasticizer was the dominant cause for degradation. The core insulation on the other hand showed much smaller changes in the mechanical properties due to thermal ageing with an activation energy of the change in the indenter modulus matching that of the dehydrochlorination process. The electrical functionality during high-energy line break accident was correlated to the mechanical properties of the cable and this correlation was used to establish a lifetime criterion. The mechanical data showed Arrhenius temperature dependence with activation energies of 80 kJmol-1 and 100 kJmol-1 for the jacketing and 130 kJmol-1 for the core insulation. These activation energies were used to extrapolate the lifetimes to service temperatures (20 °C to 50 °C). Plasticizer migration was determined as the lifetime controlling mechanism at the service temperatures. Experimental data, obtained by extraction of DEHP followed by liquid chromatography, were analysed by numerical methods to gain a better understanding of the migration. The analysis showed that the transport of DEHP to the surrounding environment was diffusion controlled at temperatures between 120 °C and 150 °C, with an activation energy of 89 kJmol-1. At lower temperatures, HTML clipboard ≤100 °C, the loss of plasticizer was controlled by evaporation, with an activation energy of 99 kJmol-1. Under the latter conditions, the rate of plasticizer loss from the PVC cable was very similar to that from the pure plasticizer, suggesting that a film of plasticizer was formed on the PVC surface. The evaporation of DEHP showed a clear dependence on the rate of ventilation of the gas phase surrounding the cable. The ability to monitor the condition of the installed cables is dependent on good techniques for the remaining lifetime assessment. The condition monitoring technique, Line Resonance Analysis, was applied to chlorosulfonated polyethylene cables. A clear correlation between LIRA and indenter modulus data obtained and LIRA and tensile testing results was found. This is of interest since existing lifetime criteria used in the nuclear plants are based on these two testing techniques.
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| 8. |
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| 9. |
- Ekelund, Maria, et al.
(författare)
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Thermal ageing assessment of EPDM-chlorosulfonated polyethylene insulated cables using line resonance analysis (LIRA)
- 2011
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Ingår i: Polymer testing. - : Elsevier BV. - 0142-9418 .- 1873-2348. ; 30:1, s. 86-93
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Two cables with chlorosulfonated polyethylene jackets and EPDM core insulations, but having different designs and geometries, were aged at 140 degrees C for different periods of time mimicking ageing at 50 degrees C for an exposure time of more than one hundred years. The cable samples were aged in dry air and dry nitrogen. The cable samples were studied with indenter modulus measurements, tensile tests, infrared spectroscopy and line resonance analysis (LIRA). The main question was whether universal correlations could be established between the two classical methods (indenter and tensile testing) and LIRA. The global ageing indicator (CBAC2) obtained by LIRA showed good correlation with the indenter modulus of the jacketing and with the mechanical properties of the core insulation. Almost universal CBAC2 values were obtained for samples reaching a critical state; the latter being defined according to a criterion based on LOCA test data. Infrared spectroscopy showed that the core insulation degraded by an essentially oxygen-free mechanism, with a gradual increase in the concentration of vinyl and vinylene groups. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 10. |
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