| 1. |
- Backlund, Sandra
(författare)
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Efficient improvement of energy efficiency in small and medium- sized Swedish firms
- 2014
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This is a dissertation about efficient implementation of energy efficiency measures in small and medium-sized Swedish firms. The aim is to investigate the potential for economically efficient implementation of energy efficiency improvement measures in small and medium-sized firms. The thesis contains five papers that analyse different aspects that have been put forth in policy documents and academic debate as methods to improve energy efficiency in non-energy intensive sectors.By reading policy documents, interviewing representatives of small and medium- sized firms and energy auditors as well as analysing data from the Swedish energy audit program, different aspects of energy management practices, energy services and energy audits are considered. The thesis is the product of an interdisciplinary context but economic theory is at the foundation of the analysis and has helped formulate questions and hypotheses that have been tested and explored with the data.The results show that while the potential for improving energy efficiency in the small and medium- sized sector in Sweden is large there are challenges to realizing it in each individual firm. There is potential for improving energy efficiency in the sector and not just for investments in new technology but also for adjusting existing machinery and changing behaviour, but costs for investigating the potential and implementing the measures are large relative to the improvement potential in each company. Energy management practices in this sector are lacking and energy services will only be demanded if reduction in production cost is estimated larger than transaction costs of the service. The Swedish energy audit program has led to the implementation of energy efficiency improvements in the participating firms but compared to other policy instruments it has been a less cost-efficient way to improve energy efficiency in Sweden.
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| 2. |
- Granholm, Patrik, 1974-
(författare)
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Alciphron, Letters of the Courtesans : Edited with Introduction, Translation and Commentary
- 2012
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This dissertation aims at providing a new critical edition of the fictitious Letters of the Courtesans attributed to Alciphron (late 2nd or early 3rd century AD).The first part of the introduction begins with a brief survey of the problematic dating and identification of Alciphron, followed by a general overview of the epistolary genre and the letters of Alciphron. The main part of the introduction deals with the manuscript tradition. Eighteen manuscripts, which contain some or all of the Letters of the Courtesans, are described and the relationship between them is analyzed based on complete collations of all the manuscripts. The conclusion, which is illustrated by a stemma codicum, is that there are four primary manuscripts from which the other fourteen manuscripts derive: Vaticanus gr. 1461, Laurentianus gr. 59.5, Parisinus gr. 3021 and Parisinus gr. 3050. The introduction concludes with a brief chapter on the previous editions, a table illustrating the selection and order of the letters in the manuscripts and editions, and an outline of the editorial principles. The guiding principle for the constitution of the text has been to use conjectural emendation sparingly and to try to preserve the text of the primary manuscripts wherever possible. The critical apparatus has been divided into a main apparatus below the text, which reports variant readings from the primary manuscripts and a small selection of conjectures, and two appendices which report scribal conjectures from the secondary manuscripts and conjectures by modern scholars with bibliographical references. A third appendix has also been added which lists all conjectures adopted into the text. The parallel translation, which is accompanied by brief explanatory notes on names and places, is literal and serves as a complement to the commentary, which primarily deals with matters of textual criticism. In the commentary problematic passages are discussed, especially where an emendation has been adopted or where the present edition differs from previous editions. After the three appendices the dissertation ends with a bibliography.
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| 3. |
- Jonsson, Patrik, 1968-
(författare)
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Surface Status Classification, Utilizing Image Sensor Technology and Computer Models
- 2015
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- There is a great need to develop systems that can continuously provide correct information about road surface status depending on the prevailing weather conditions. This will minimize accidents and optimize transportation. In this thesis different methods for the determination of the road surface status have been studied and analyzed, and suggestions of new technology are proposed. Information about the road surface status is obtained traditionally from various sensors mounted directly in the road surface. This information must then be analyzed to create automated warning systems for road users and road maintenance personnel. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate how existing technologies can be used to obtain a more accurate description of the current road conditions. Another purpose is also to investigate how existing technologies can be used to obtain a more accurate description of the current road conditions. Furthermore, the aim is to develop non-contact technologies able to determine and classify road conditions over a larger area, since there is no system available today that can identify differences in road surface status in the wheel tracks and between the wheel tracks.Literature studies have been carried out to find the latest state of the art research and technology, and the research work is mainly based on empirical studies. A large part of the research has involved planning and setting up laboratory experiments to test and verify hypotheses that have emerged from the literature studies. Initially a few traditional road-mounted sensors were analyzed regarding their ability to determine the road conditions and the impact on their measured values when the sensors were exposed to contamination agents such as glycol and oil. Furthermore, non-contact methods for determining the status of the road surface have been studied. Images from cameras working in the visible range, together data from the Swedish Transportation Administration road weather stations, have been used to develop computerized road status classification models that can distinguish between a dry, wet, icy and snowy surface. Field observations have also been performed to get the ground truth for developing these models. In order to improve the ability to accurately distinguish between different surface statuses, measurement systems involving sensors working in the Near-Infrared (NIR) range have been utilized. In this thesis a new imaging method for determining road conditions with NIR camera technology is developed and described. This method was tested in a field study performed during the winter 2013-2014 with successful results.The results show that some traditional sensors could be used even with future user-friendly de-icing chemicals. The findings from using visual camera systems and meteorological parameters to determine the road status showed that they provide previously unknown information about road conditions. It was discovered that certain road conditions such as black ice is not always detectable using this technology. Therefore, research was performed that utilized the NIR region where it proved to be possible to detect and distinguish different road conditions, such as black ice. NIR camera technology was introduced in the research since the aim of the thesis was to find a method that provides information on the status of the road over a larger area. The results show that if several images taken in different spectral bands are analyzed with the support of advanced computer models, it is possible to distinguish between a dry, wet, icy and snowy surface. This resulted in the development of a NIR camera system that can distinguish between different surface statuses. Finally, two of these prototype systems for road condition classification were evaluated. These systems were installed at E14 on both sides of the border between Sweden and Norway. The results of these field tests show that this new road status classification, based on NIR imaging spectral analysis, provides new information about the status of the road surface, compared to what can be obtained from existing measurement systems, particularly for detecting differences in and between the wheel tracks.
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| 4. |
- Källback, Patrik
(författare)
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Development and Application of Software Tools for Mass Spectrometry Imaging
- 2017
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) has been extensively used to produce qualitative maps of distributions of proteins, peptides, lipids, neurotransmitters, small molecule pharmaceuticals and their metabolites directly in biological tissue sections. Moreover, during the last 10 years, there has been growing demand to quantify target compounds in tissue sections of various organs. This thesis focuses on development and application of a novel instrument- and manufacturer-independent MSI software suite, msIQuant, in the open access format imzML, which has been developed specifically for quantitative analysis of MSI data. The functionality of msIQuant facilitates automatic generation of calibration curves from series of standards that can be used to determine concentrations of specific analytes. In addition, it provides many tools for image visualization, including modules enabling multiple interpolation, low intensity transparency display, and image fusion and sharpening. Moreover, algorithms and advanced data management modules in msIQuant facilitate management of the large datasets generated following rapid recent increases in the mass and spatial resolutions of MSI instruments, by using spectra transposition and data entropy reduction (at four selectable levels: coarse, medium, fine or superfine) before lossless compression of the data. As described in the thesis, implementation of msIQuant has been exemplified in both quantitative (relative or absolute) and qualitative analyses of distributions of neurotransmitters, endogenous substances and pharmaceutical drugs in brain tissue sections. Our laboratory have developed a molecular-specific approach for the simultaneous imaging and quantitation of multiple neurotransmitters, precursors, and metabolites, such as tyrosine, tryptamine, tyramine, phenethylamine, dopamine, 3-methoxytyramine, serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and acetylcholine, in histological tissue sections at high spatial resolution by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) and desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) MSI. Chemical derivatization by charge-tagging primary amines of analytes significantly increased the sensitivity, enabling mapping of neurotransmitters that were not previously detectable by MSI. The two MSI approaches have been used to directly measure changes in neurotransmitter levels in specific brain structures in animal disease models, which facilitates understanding of biochemical mechanisms of drug treatments. In summary, msIQuant software has proven potency (particularly in combination with the reported derivatization technique) for both qualitative and quantitative analyses. Further developments will enable its implementation in multiple operating system platforms and use for statistical analysis.
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| 5. |
- Lawrence, Akvile, 1976-
(författare)
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Energy Management for Improved Energy Efficiency in the Pulp and Paper Industry : Success Factors for Strengthening Drivers and Overcoming Barriers
- 2019
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Industrial energy efficiency improves the profit and competitive advantage of companies. The pulp and paper industry (PPI)being one of the five most energy-intensive industries uses 5.6% of global industrial energy, according to the InternationalEnergy Agency. It is one of the key sectors that is faced with the challenge of improving energy efficiency (EE). The PPI isnot less important in Sweden where it uses approximately 52% of the total industrial energy, employing more than 20000people and where improvement of the energy end-use by 1% corresponds to estimated savings of approximately 218 MSEKannually. Energy management (EnM) is a means for improving EE. However, despite research showing the possibility forannual improvement of the energy end-use by 5.5-19.4% by technical measures, EnM is not always used to its full potentialor often hardly implemented, resulting in an EE gap, i.e. the difference between the theoretical practically and cost-effectivelyachievable EE and actual EE. Why then does this EE gap exist? What are the drivers for and barriers to practicing EnM to itsfull potential and thus improving energy efficiency? What are the success factors for encouraging the drivers and overcomingthe barriers? What practical recommendations can be made that could lead to the improvement of energy efficiency? Afterextracting information from historical and current information using tools from multivariate data analysis (MDA), this PhDdissertation presents new knowledge that intends to contribute to overcome the challenges of improving energy efficiency inthe PPI. Specifically, international research primarily addressing EnM in the PPI showed that EnM in the PPI is perceived asEnM via technology, despite that EnM contains other aspects than EnM via technology, e.g. proactive EnM practices. Thisresult indicates the presence of a knowledge-gap on how to deploy EnM in the PPI. Studies on the PPI in Sweden showeddifferent EnM practices among the individual types of mills, i.e. pulp mills, paper mills and integrated-pulp and paper mills.Integrated mills seemed to measure the energy-related performance more than pulp mills and paper mills. However, the resultsalso suggested that the Swedish PPI worked continuously and regularly with EnM. Further, aside from the top ranked perceiveddrivers being economical and the barriers being organizational, knowledge related drivers and barriers were amongst the mostimportant. The results also showed that commonly only selected employees were trained in EnM, which indicated thatcommunication between the trained employees and operations personnel as well as the absorptive capacity for energy issuescould potentially be improved. Additionally, research showed that by using MDA, previously unstudied and unidentifiedconnections could be discovered. Namely, MDA showed that during the ten-year voluntary agreement policy program knownas PFE (Program for improved electricity efficiency in energy-intensive industry), less financially stable and less experiencedwith EnM companies tended to save electricity more than the more financially stable and more EnM experienced companies.Altogether, the success factors for EnM for improving energy efficiency could be summarized in the versatile 4M memorytool - The “4M for energy efficiency”: mind, measure, monitor and manage. The “4M for energy efficiency” suggests that allthe four “Ms” should be practiced simultaneously in order to maximize the achievement of goals of EnM.
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| 6. |
- Nilsson, Carl Patrik, 1969-
(författare)
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Attention to Advertising
- 2006
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Attention to AdvertisingCarl Patrik Nilsson, Umeå School of Business, Umeå University SE-901 87 Umeå, SwedenAbstractIn advertising, capturing consumers’ attention is imperative. Yet, how attention to advertising works in a World Wide Web context has not been researched extensively. This area is the main focus of this research.The World Wide Web is an interactive medium which has characteristics that deviate from traditional media channels. Considering the unique properties of the World Wide Web it was deemed important to study how attention to advertising is affected by various contexts as well as attention getting techniques.The study was conducted in order to develop an understanding of how advertisements in different Web task environments are being attended to as well as how attention to advertisements varies between different attention getting techniques that are being used in Web advertising. Furthermore, a model which describes the relationship between context, attention getting techniques and attention to advertising was developed and tested. In connection to this it was tested whether click-through or click-rate is indeed an adequate method when measuring advertising effect and thereby to what extent the pay per click pricing strategy is appropriate.In order to address the research issues a theoretical framework was assembled. Nine hypotheses were formulated deriving from the framework. To test the hypotheses and the model, an experimental research design was employed. Three experiments were designed to study the hypotheses formulated. A total of 702 individual experiments were conducted.The conclusions from the study reveal that Web task environments indeed have an impact on attention to advertising. Increased complexity or a more difficult task environment demands more cognitive resources which in turn produces lower attention levels to the advertising stimulus. Reduced complexity, on the other hand, releases cognitive resources that can be spent elsewhere. Thus, a higher attention level to the advertising stimulus was recorded. This also confirmed the properties of the proposed model; namely that the permeability of a filtering mechanism is dependent on for instance level of goal orientation and complexity of the physical task environment i.e. the complexity of the Web site. The study revealed that attention getting techniques such as pop-up advertisements increase the attention to advertising. However, it was found that pop-up advertisements are effective, not mainly because of their abrupt presentation, but because of the distinct properties of the frame. It was found that the frame has a negative meaning for Web users and when the frame comes into the visual field it will attract their attention. At the same time attention will also be distributed towards the advertisement itself. This is recorded as an increase in attention towards the advertising message.The results show that the click-through measure is not an appropriate method when measuring advertising effect. The click-through measure may severely underestimate the advertising effect. Consequently, using click-through frequencies as a basis for pricing is inappropriate, unless the effects at play have been well understood and taken into consideration.Key words: Attention to advertising, attention getting techniques, Web advertising, Web environment, click-throughStudies in Business Administration, B series, No 60.ISSN 0346-8291, ISBN 91-7264-189-4Umeå School of Business - Sweden 2006
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| 7. |
- Nilsson, Peter, 1979-
(författare)
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Essays on Social Interactions and the Long-term Effects of Early-Life Conditions
- 2009
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This thesis consists of four self-contained essays. Essay 1: From the late 1970s through mid 1990s blood-lead levels decreased drastically in Swedish children due to the sharp phase-out of leaded gasoline. Exploiting the distinct geographical variation in early childhood lead exposure induced by the regulations together with micro data on all children in nine birth cohorts I show that reduced lead exposure early in life improves scholastic performance, cognitive ability, and labor market outcomes among young adults. At the relatively low levels of exposure considered, the analysis reveals a nonlinear relationship between local air lead levels in early childhood and adult outcomes, indicating the existence of a threshold below which further reductions no longer improve adult outcomes. Importantly, the effect is greater for children of lower socioeconomic status (SES), suggesting that pollution is one mechanism through which SES affects long-term economic outcomes and that environmental policies could potentially reduce the intergenerational correlation in economic outcomes. Essay 2: During a policy experiment in two Swedish regions in 1967 alcohol availability increased sharply, particularly for people under age 21. The policy experiment was abruptly ended after only 8.5 months due to a sharp increase in alcohol consumption. I exploit the distinct temporal, spatial and age-specific changes in alcohol availability induced by the policy shift to estimate the long-term effects on those in utero during it. I find that children in utero during the short period of increased alcohol availability have significantly lower educational attainments, earnings and increased welfare dependency rates at age 30 in comparison with the surrounding cohorts. Any direct effects of the increased availability on birth-cohort composition (e.g. through an increase in unplanned pregnancies) are not driving the results as the richness of the data allows for a focus on exposed children conceived before the policy experiment started. The results provide compelling evidence that investments in early-life health can yield large effects on outcomes later on in life. Essay 3: We utilize a large-scale randomized social experiment to identify how co-workers affect each other’s effort as measured by work absence. The experiment altered the work absence incentives for half of all employees living in Göteborg, Sweden. Using administrative data we are able to recover the treatment status of all workers in more than 3,000 workplaces. We first document that employees in workplaces with a high proportion treated co-workers increase their own absence level significantly. We then examine the heterogeneity of the treatment effect in order to explore what mechanisms are underlying the peer effect. While a strong effect of having a high proportion of treated co-workers is found for the non-treated workers, no significant effects are found for the treated workers. These results suggest that pure altruistic social preferences can be ruled out as the main motivator for the behaviour of a non-negligible proportion of the employees in our sample. Essay 4: We examine the influence that co-workers’ childbearing has on each other’s fertility decisions. Using linked-employer employee panel data for Sweden we show that female individual fertility increases with on average 10% if a co-worker had a child within the previous 13-24 months. The timing of births among co-workers of the same sex, educational level and co-workers who are close in age is even more influential. Consistent with models of social learning we find that the peer effect for first time mothers is similar irrespective of the birth order of the co-worker’s child, while for higher order births within-parity peer effects are strong but cross-parity peer effects are entirely absent. A causal interpretation of our estimates is strengthened by several falsification test showing that neither unobserved common shocks at the workplace level, nor sorting of workers between workplaces are likely to explain the observed peer effect. We also provide evidence suggesting that peers not only affect timing of births but potentially also completed fertility, and that fertility peer influences spills-over across multiple networks. Our results suggest that social interactions could be an important factor behind the strong inter-temporal fluctuations in total fertility rates observed in many countries.
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| 8. |
- Nilsson, Patrik, 1969
(författare)
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Managing Requirements in a Design Support System. A Product Modelling Approachn
- 2004
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The basic decisions in product development processes concerning requirements, functions, and product concepts are made during the early phases. Thus, a huge amount of information about the evolving product is generated and must be shared, structured, and communicated. Sharing this information is important. However, it is only beneficial if the information is used and interpreted effectively. This is not always a straightforward task, and there are many challenges involved in getting people from different disciplines to produce and share a common view of the product. Despite the rapid development of information technology, there are still few software tools that support the dynamic early phases where stakeholder needs and requirements are identified and conceptual solutions are evaluated against these requirements. This thesis argues for a holistic view, in order to manage all criteria while considering as many perspectives and interests as possible. A model, theoretically based on the Theory of Domains, has been developed to support this holistic view. It provides a common understanding of involved stakeholders, together with the requirements, functions and sub-systems of the product being designed. The main contributions of the research lie in: a phenomena model that has been developed for a common understanding of different stakeholders involved, together with the requirements, functions, and systems during the design of a product, the knowledge of integrated product and process modelling has been further developed in order to bridge, or at least narrow, the gap between product and process descriptions, and, descriptive elements on how manufacturing requirements are managed and prescriptive elements demonstrating how the requirements could be structured. The different structures and their applicable manufacturing requirements have been implemented in a commercial requirements engineering tool. This model will help facilitate information sharing between members of development teams. Based on this, the model will support the decision-making process, and help the design team balance the interests of different stakeholders and the related functions. This balance will in turn enhance the possibility of success in the market. The model's applicability has been shown through several industrial studies.
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| 9. |
- Nilsson, Patrik
(författare)
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Mechanistic investigation of platinum and palladium catalysed cross- coupling reactions. Implications for the Stille and Heck reactions.
- 2005
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The present thesis deals with various types of palladium(II) and platinum(II) complexes and their use in homogeneous catalysis. The focus has been devoted to mechanistic investigations concerning the Stille and Heck reactions and studies under both catalytic and stoichiometric conditions were conducted. As a stoichiometric probe for studying the transmetallation step in the Stille reaction the platinum(II) complexes trans-[PtPhCl(PMe2Ph)2] (8), trans-[PtPhCl(PPh3)2] (9), trans-[PtPh(OTf)(PMe2Ph)2] (10), trans-[PtPh(OTf)(PPh3)2] (11), trans-[PtPhF(PMe2Ph)2], (12) and trans-[PtPhF(PPh3)2] (13) were treated with the tetraorganotin compound Me3SnPh. The reactivity of the Pt?F complexes is very high especially in comparison to the corresponding Pt-Cl complexes, where no reactivity is observed under the reaction conditions used. The overall reactivity decreases in the order 13 > 12 > 11 > 10 >> 8, 9 and can be rationalised in terms of the lability of the leaving group and the steric demand of the ancillary phosphorus ligands. The product distribution is strongly dependent on the reaction conditions. Thus, the sterically more demanding PPh3 ligand directs the transmetallation to occur over the Sn?Me bond instead of over the Sn?Ph bond, which is normally the case. The mechanism for the transmetallation is proposed to involve parallel equilibria to both cis and trans products with associative activation in all steps. In this mechanism the initial attack always takes place trans to the phenyl group giving trans products via an open transition state. In a possible subsequent step another molecule of stannane can give cis products via a cyclic transition state. The formation of a unreactive tris(phosphine) complex [PtPh(PMe2Ph)3]+ (15), could explain the rate retardation found in Stille reactions when free ligand is added. Also, the reversibility of the transmetallation reactions implicates that all organic product could be funnelled out via a cis complex although there is substantial amounts of trans complex initially formed. In conclusion this means that the organotin reagent catalyses the cis to trans isomerisation. For the investigations under catalytic conditions two types of PCP palladium(II) complexes have been used, {2,6-bis[(diphenylphosphino)methyl]-benzene}palladium(II)trifluoroacetate (23) and {cis-1,3-bis[(di-tertbutyl-phosphino)methyl]cyclohexane}palladium(II)iodide (24). The complexes serve as Pd(II) pre-catalysts forming small amounts of catalytically active colloidal Pd species. The nature of the catalyst was confirmed by the inhibition seen on addition of elementary mercury to the reaction solutions and clearly speaks in favour of a heterogeneous form of the active catalysts. In the presence of 23 as pre-catalyst for the Stille reaction between 4-bromoanisole and Me3SnPh the mechanism is suggested to consist of a reversible oxidative addition of the aryl halide followed by rate determining irreversible transmetallation. For the Heck reaction between styrene and 4-iodoanisole, with 24 as the pre-catalyst, the kinetics display saturation behaviour with respect to the olefin concentration. This is compatible with a mechanism consisting of a pre-equilibrium step involving association of the olefin followed by a rate determining oxidative addition step of the aryl halide.
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| 10. |
- Nilsson, Patrik
(författare)
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Remember the small giants - Occupational exposure and characterization of aerosol particles
- 2016
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- BACKGROUND: Exposure to airborne particles in occupational environments can lead to both acute and long-term health effects in humans. To date, particle exposure limits in the air are typically given in terms of mass concentrations. But by only using mass concentration to characterize particles means there is a risk that other relevant characteristics, such as particle size and composition are concealed. This is argued to be the case for exposure to engineered nanoparticles (ENP), which are particles tailored to possess unique properties. The aim of this thesis is to provide knowledge to improve the characterization and risk assessments of particle emissions in selected occupational environments. METHODS: 1) In a diesel exhaust exposure chamber study, several techniques were combined to determine a wide range of particle characteristics, including particle number, surface, mass, chemistry and morphology. 2) In a hairdresser exposure chamber study, the emissions of particles and persulfate salts during hair bleaching were characterized. 3) In two field studies, the emissions of ENPs in two different production facilities were characterized by filter sampling and by direct reading instruments. A laser vaporization aerosol mass spectrometer (LV-AMS) was used for both selective sampling of emitted particles based on their composition, and for in-situ analysis of ENPs inside the production line. RESULTS: 1) If diesel exhaust particles are assumed to be spherical, the estimated particle mass concentration from number concentration was overestimated by 261% compared to if their aggregated structures were considered. 2) During the application of hair bleaching, large particles (> 10 µm) were emitted from both bleach powder that was classified as dust-free and powder that was not. 3) Particles emitted during the maintenance of ENP production equipment were predominantly highly agglomerated with nanostructured surfaces, consisting of nanoparticles grown together to larger scales (> 1 µm). With the LV-AMS, emissions were correlated to specific particle types and interferences from background particles could be avoided. CONCLUSIONS: The ability to compare different diesel exhaust exposure studies will increase if methods are utilized that allow the characterization of particle size, shape, morphology and chemistry and that include different concentration metrics. Exposure assessments of ENP production facilities and hairdresser salons should include methods for coarse particle sampling. LV-AMS is a promising method for selective sampling of emitted particles in occupational environments, and for in-situ analysis of particle production. But the LV-AMS’s cost efficiency, practicality, and capability to sample coarse particles need to be extended. Accurate exposure assessments should cover a wide particle size range in order to find the nanoparticles that hide in the form of bigger particles.
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