| 1. |
- Leinsalu, Mall, 1958-, et al.
(author)
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Economic fluctuations and long-term trends in depression : a repeated cross-sectional study in Estonia 2004-2016
- 2019
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In: Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. - : BMJ Publishing Group Ltd. - 0143-005X .- 1470-2738. ; 73:11, s. 1026-1032
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- BACKGROUND: In the 2000s, the Baltic countries experienced unprecedented credit-driven economic growth that was followed by a deep recession. This study examined the impact of profound macroeconomic changes on population mental health in Estonia in 2004-2016.METHODS: Data on 17 794 individuals in the 20-64 age group were obtained from seven nationally representative cross-sectional surveys. The prevalence of past 30-day depression was calculated for men and women further stratified by sociodemographic characteristics. Multivariable regression analysis was used to assess whether these characteristics were associated with the yearly variation in depression.RESULTS: In 2006, the adjusted prevalence ratio for depression was 0.77 (95% CI 0.64 to 0.93) for men and 0.85 (95% CI 0.74 to 0.97) for women as compared with 2004; in 2010, the prevalence ratio as compared with 2008 for both men and women was 1.22 (95% CIs 1.04 to 1.43 and 1.09 to 1.37, respectively). Among men, the increase in the prevalence of depression in 2008-2010 was statistically significant for 35-64 year olds, ethnic Estonians, those who were married, mid-educated or were employed, whereas among women, a significant increase was observed in 50-64 year olds, Estonians and non-Estonians, those who were not-married, were highly educated or mid-educated, in the mid-income group or were employed.CONCLUSIONS: Population mental health is responsive to macroeconomic changes. In less wealthy high-income countries, the greater impact of recession on depression among advantaged groups may relate to a higher debt burden coupled with job insecurity.
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| 2. |
- Leinsalu, Mall, 1958-, et al.
(author)
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Economic fluctuations and urban-rural differences in educational inequalities in mortality in the Baltic countries and Finland in 2000-2015 : a register-based study
- 2020
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In: International Journal for Equity in Health. - : BioMed Central. - 1475-9276. ; 19:1
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We examined urban-rural differences in educational inequalities in mortality in the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) and Finland in the context of macroeconomic changes. Educational inequalities among 30-74 year olds were examined in 2000-2003, 2004-2007, 2008-2011 and 2012-2015 using census-linked longitudinal mortality data. We estimated age-standardized mortality rates and the relative and slope index of inequality. Overall mortality rates were larger in rural areas except among Finnish women. Relative educational inequalities in mortality were often larger in urban areas among men but in rural areas among women. Absolute inequalities were mostly larger in rural areas excepting Finnish men. Between 2000-2003 and 2012-2015 relative inequalities increased in most countries while absolute inequalities decreased except in Lithuania. In the Baltic countries the changes in both relative and absolute inequalities tended to be more favorable in urban areas; in Finland they were more favorable in rural areas. The overall pattern changed during the reccessionary period from 2004-2007 to 2008-2011 when relative inequalities often diminished or the increase slowed, while the decrease in absolute inequalities accelerated with larger improvements observed in urban areas. Despite substantial progress in reducing overall mortality rates in both urban and rural areas in all countries, low educated men and women in rural areas in the Baltic countries are becoming increasingly disadvantaged in terms of mortality reduction.
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| 3. |
- Leinsalu, Mall, 1958-, et al.
(author)
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Macroeconomic changes and trends in dental care utilization in Estonia and Lithuania in 2004-2012 : a repeated cross-sectional study
- 2018
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In: BMC Oral Health. - : BioMed Central. - 1472-6831. ; 18:1
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to assess trends and inequalities in dental care utilization in Estonia and Lithuania in relation to large-scale macroeconomic changes in 2004-2012.METHODS: Data on 22,784 individuals in the 20-64 age group were retrieved from nationally representative cross-sectional surveys in 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2012. Age- and sex-standardized prevalence estimates of past 12-month dental visits were calculated for each study year, stratified by gender, age group, ethnicity, educational level and economic activity. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to assess the independent effect of study year and socioeconomic status on dental visits.RESULTS: The age- and sex-standardized prevalence of dental visits in the past 12 months was 46-52% in Estonia and 61-67% in Lithuania. In 2004-2008, the prevalence of dental visits increased by 5.9 percentage points in both countries and fell in 2008-2010 by 3.8 percentage points in Estonia and 4.6 percentage points in Lithuania. In both countries the prevalence of dental care utilization had increased slightly by 2012, although the increase was statistically insignificant. Results from a logistic regression analysis showed that these differences between study years were not explained by differences in socioeconomic status or oral health conditions. Women, the main ethnic group (only in Estonia), and higher educated and employed persons had significantly higher odds of dental visits in both countries, but the odds were lower for 50-64 year olds in Lithuania.CONCLUSIONS: In European Union countries with lower national wealth, the use of dental services is sensitive to macroeconomic changes regardless of the extent of public coverage, at the same time, higher public coverage may not relate to lower inequalities in dental care use.
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| 4. |
- Leinsalu, Mall, 1958-, et al.
(author)
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Macroeconomic fluctuations and educational inequalities in suicide mortality among working-age men in the Baltic countries and Finland in 2000–2015 : A register-based study
- 2020
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In: Journal of Psychiatric Research. - : Elsevier. - 0022-3956 .- 1879-1379. ; 131, s. 138-143
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Introduction: In the 2000s, the Baltic countries experienced unprecedented economic growth followed by a deep recession. This study aimed to examine changes and educational inequalities in suicide mortality among working-age men in the Baltic countries and Finland in relation to macroeconomic fluctuations. Methods: We analysed changes in overall suicide mortality and by educational level between the 2000–2003, 2004–2007, 2008–2011 and 2012–2015 periods among men aged 30–64 years using census-linked longitudinal mortality data. We estimated age-standardised mortality rates, mortality rate ratios (Poisson regression), the relative index of inequality and slope index of inequality. Results: Overall suicide mortality fell markedly from 2000–2003 to 2004–2007. The decline was largest among high educated men in the Baltic countries and among middle and low educated men in Finland. From 2004–2007 to 2008–2011, the positive trend slowed and while suicide mortality continued to fall among middle and low educated men, it increased somewhat among high educated men in all Baltic countries. In Finland, suicide mortality decreased among the high educated and increased slightly among low educated men. Conclusions: In the Baltic countries, lower educated men had a smaller decline in suicide mortality than higher educated men during a period of rapid economic expansion, however, they were not more disadvantaged during the recession, possibly because of being less exposed to financial loss. Consequently, relative inequalities in suicide mortality may increase during economic booms and decrease during recessions.
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| 6. |
- Stickley, Andrew, et al.
(author)
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Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and perceived mental health discrimination in adults in the general population
- 2019
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In: European psychiatry. - : Elsevier. - 0924-9338 .- 1778-3585. ; 56, s. 91-96
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Background: The experience of discrimination is common in individuals with mental health problems and has been associated with a range of negative outcomes. As yet, however, there has been an absence of research on this phenomenon in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The current study examined the association between ADHD symptoms and mental health discrimination in the general adult population. Methods: The analytic sample comprised 7274 individuals aged 18 and above residing in private households in England that were drawn from the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey, 2007. Information on ADHD was obtained with the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) Screener. A single-item question was used to assess mental health discrimination experienced in the previous 12 months. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine associations. Results: The prevalence of discrimination increased as ADHD symptoms increased but was especially elevated in those with the most severe ADHD symptoms (ASRS score 18–24). In a multivariable logistic regression analysis that was adjusted for a variety of covariates including common mental disorders, ADHD symptoms (ASRS ≥ 14) were associated with almost 3 times higher odds for experiencing mental health discrimination (odds ratio: 2.81, 95% confidence interval: 1.49–5.31). Conclusion: ADHD symptoms are associated with higher odds for experiencing mental health discrimination and this association is especially elevated in those with the most severe ADHD symptoms. Interventions to inform the general public about ADHD may be important for reducing the stigma and discrimination associated with this disorder in adults.
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| 7. |
- Stickley, Andrew, et al.
(author)
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Childhood hunger and depressive symptoms in adulthood : findings from a population-based study
- 2018
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In: Journal of Affective Disorders. - : Elsevier. - 0165-0327 .- 1573-2517. ; 226, s. 332-338
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Background: Several studies have linked childhood hunger to an increased risk for later depression. However, as yet, there has been little research on this relation in adults of all ages or whether there are sex differences in this association. The current study examined these issues using data from a national population-based sample.Methods: Data were analyzed from 5095 adults aged 25–84 collected during the Estonian Health Interview Survey 2006. Information was obtained on the frequency of going to bed hungry in childhood and on depressive symptoms using the Emotional State Questionnaire (EST-Q). Logistic regression analysis was used to examine the association between hunger and depression while controlling for other demographic, socioeconomic and health-related variables.Results: In a fully adjusted model, going to bed hungry in childhood either sometimes or often was associated with significantly increased odds for adult depressive symptoms. When the analysis was stratified by sex the association was more evident in men where any frequency of childhood hunger was linked to adult depression while only women who had experienced hunger often had higher odds for depressive symptoms in the final model.Limitations: Data on childhood hunger were retrospectively reported and may have been affected by recall bias. We also lacked information on potentially relevant variables such as other childhood adversities that might have been important for the observed associations.Conclusion: Childhood hunger is associated with an increased risk for depressive symptoms among adults. Preventing hunger in childhood may be important for mental health across the life course.
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| 8. |
- Stickley, Andrew, et al.
(author)
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Childhood hunger and thoughts of death or suicide in older adults
- 2018
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In: The American journal of geriatric psychiatry. - : Elsevier. - 1064-7481 .- 1545-7214. ; 26:10, s. 1070-1078
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Objective There is little research on the effects of childhood hunger on adult mental health. This study examined the association between childhood hunger and recurrent thoughts of death or suicide in older adults. Design Data were analyzed from adults aged 60 and above collected during the Estonian Health Interview Survey 2006 (N=2455). Retrospective information was obtained on the frequency (never, seldom, sometimes, often) of going to bed hungry in childhood, and on the presence of recurrent thoughts of death or suicide in the past 4 weeks. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to examine associations between the variables. Results Experiencing hunger in childhood was common (37.6%) with 14.3% of the respondents stating that they often went to bed hungry. In a univariate analysis going to bed hungry either sometimes or often more than doubled the odds for thoughts of death or suicide. Although adjustment for a range of covariates (including physical diseases and depressive episode) attenuated the associations, in the fully adjusted model going to bed hungry sometimes continued to be associated with significantly increased odds for thoughts of death or suicide in older adults (OR = 1.74, 95% CI = 1.10–2.74; Wald χ2 = 5.7, df = 1, p = 0.017). Conclusion The findings of this study suggest that the effects of childhood hunger may be long lasting and associated with mental health and well-being even in older adults.
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| 9. |
- Stickley, Andrew, et al.
(author)
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Disability and loneliness in nine countries of the former Soviet Union
- 2021
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In: Disability and Health Journal. - : Elsevier. - 1936-6574 .- 1876-7583. ; 14:4
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- BACKGROUND: People with disabilities (PWD) often face structural and other barriers to community involvement and may therefore be at risk of loneliness. Yet, so far, this issue has received little attention.OBJECTIVE: This cross-sectional study aimed to examine the association between disability and loneliness in nine countries of the former Soviet Union (FSU).METHODS: Data were analyzed from 18000 respondents aged ≥18 that came from the Health in Times of Transition (HITT) survey that was undertaken in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine in 2010/11. Respondents reported on whether they had a disability (no/yes) and its severity. A single-item question was used to assess loneliness. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine the associations.RESULTS: Across the countries, 6.8% of respondents reported being disabled. In a fully adjusted combined country analysis, disability was associated with higher odds for loneliness (odds ratio: 1.30, 95% confidence interval: 1.06-1.60). In an analysis restricted to PWD, individuals in the most severe disability category (Group 1) had over two times higher odds for loneliness when compared to those in the least severe disability category (Group 3).CONCLUSIONS: Disability is associated with higher odds for reporting loneliness in the FSU countries and this association is especially strong among those who are more severely disabled. An increased focus on the relationship between disability and loneliness is now warranted given the increasing recognition of loneliness as a serious public health problem that is associated with a number of detrimental outcomes.
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| 10. |
- Stickley, Andrew, et al.
(author)
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Economic cycles and inequalities in alcohol-related mortality in the Baltic countries and Finland in 2000-2015 : a register-based study
- 2021
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In: Addiction. - : Wiley-Blackwell. - 0965-2140 .- 1360-0443. ; 16:12, s. 3357-3368
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- AIM: To estimate whether large macroeconomic fluctuations in the 2000s affected inequalities in alcohol-related mortality in the Baltic countries and Finland.DESIGN: Longitudinal register-based follow up study.SETTING: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland.PARTICIPANTS: General population in the 35-74 age group.MEASUREMENTS: Socioeconomic status was measured by the highest achieved educational level and was categorised using the International Standard Classification of Education 2011 as low (included categories 0-2), middle (3-4), and high (5-8). Educational inequalities in alcohol-related mortality in 2000-2003, 2004-2007, 2008-2011 and 2012-2015 were examined using census-linked longitudinal mortality data. We estimated age-standardised mortality rates and the relative and slope index of inequality.FINDINGS: Alcohol-related mortality increased in all countries in 2004-2007 except among Estonian women and decreased/remained the same from 2008 onwards except among Latvian men. By 2012-2015 alcohol-related mortality was still higher than in 2000-2003 in Finland, Latvia and Lithuania (women only). Relative inequalities increased across the study period in all countries (significantly in Lithuania and Latvia). The 2004-2007 increase in relative inequalities was mostly driven by a larger mortality increase among the low educated, whereas in 2008-2011 and in 2012-2015 inequalities often increased because of a larger relative mortality decline among the high educated. However, these period changes in relative inequalities and between educational groups were often not statistically significant. Absolute inequalities were larger in 2012-2015 vs. 2000-2003 in all countries except Estonia (decrease).CONCLUSION: In Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland, alcohol-related mortality tended to increase faster among the low educated during a period of economic expansion (2004-2007) and tended to decrease more among the high educated during a period of economic recession (2008-2011).
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