| 1. |
- Andersson, Karin, 1952, et al.
(författare)
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Methods and Tools for Environmental Assessment.
- 2016
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Ingår i: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation; Andersson, K., Brynolf, S., Lindgren, F.J. & Wilewska-Bien (eds.).. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 265-293
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Selecting measures to reduce the overall environmental impact associated with shipping can be a difficult task, and a systematic approach is needed. There is risk of sub-optimisation and counteraction of different measures with one another if decisions are made based on fragmented decision support. An example of a system effect is the long lifetime of ships, which slows the introduction of new technologies. Therefore, design and retrofits must fulfil not only present but also future requirements for environmental sustainability. This chapter describes the basic details of several methods and tools that can be used in environmental assessments within the shipping industry. The methods and tools described are grouped into three categories: (1) procedural tools, (2) analytical tools and (3) aggregated tools. Examples of procedural tools are environmental impact assessment, multi-criteria decision analysis and risk management; life cycle assessment (LCA) and environmental risk assessment are examples of analytical tools. Aggregated tools include indicators, indices, and footprints.
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| 2. |
- Andersson, Karin, 1952, et al.
(författare)
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Shipping and the environment
- 2016
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Ingår i: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 3-27
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Humans have always had a close relationship with the aquatic environment, including the early use of the sea for food harvesting and communication. Today, the sea is an important component of the transportation system, with large amounts of cargo and passengers. This chapter provides a short introduction to ships and shipping, focussing primarily on commercial ships; nonetheless, many of the emissions, impacts and measures discussed throughout this book are common to other sectors, such as leisure, research and fishing. This chapter also introduces the environmental impacts related to ship operations. Ship transportation has increased tremendously since the industrial revolution, which has resulted in increased emissions due to shipping and increased stresses on the environment. However, this trend is not only related to shipping. Currently, there are several warning signs that we are not taking care of the Earth and its ecosystem in a sustainable manner, that the Earth's ecosystems are degrading and that natural capital is being exploited, e.g., by the burning of fossil fuels. The marine industry is a component of our society; similar to all industry sectors, it contributes to unsustainable patterns in our society. Although the marine industry is a contributor to these problems, it can also be part of the solution, yet several challenges must be addressed. Sustainability and related concepts, such as ecosystem services, planetary boundaries and resilience thinking, could be used as guidance in addressing these challenges. Humans have always had a close relationship with the aquatic environment. Indeed, a scientific discussion debates whether the first humans evolved in a dry land environment, on the savannah, or in shallow water environments (as the "water man" or "aquatic ape") [1]. With respect to environmental awareness, the sea has come into focus relatively late compared with other natural areas. Independent of this observation, the sea has served as an important transportation route and a source of food and recreation throughout history. In a world where more than 70 % of the surface is covered by oceans, our interaction with and dependence on the sea in numerous aspects is obvious.
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| 3. |
- Brynolf, Selma, 1984, et al.
(författare)
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Improving environmental performance in shipping
- 2016
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Ingår i: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 399-418
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This book addresses the environmental issues related to shipping and the natural environment, including descriptions of and proposed solutions to the issues. Currently, challenges exist that must be addressed if shipping is to become sustainable and fulfil the zero vision of no harmful emissions to the environment. In this chapter, we evaluate the steps that have been taken (if any) to limit the various environmental issues and discuss possible steps to be taken to improve environmental performance. Furthermore, future challenges must also be addressed, e.g., the current trend of increasing ship operations in the Arctic. In general, three factors could be addressed in order to reach environmentally sustainable shipping: regulations, technical solutions, and increased environmental awareness. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016. All rights are reserved.
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| 4. |
- Lindgren, Fredrik, 1979, et al.
(författare)
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The natural environment and human impacts
- 2016
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Ingår i: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 29-74
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- To comprehend the implications of the various environmental issues that man is inducing on the Earth (with a focus on the shipping industry), an understanding of the Earth's major systems is necessary. The natural environment, which consists of air, water, land and living organisms, is a dynamic system in which material and energy are exchanged within and between the individual components. The system is divided into four spheres (atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphère), and fluxes of energy and material are exchanged amongst these spheres. The spheres also largely govern the fate of various environmental problems originating from the shipping industry. Therefore, background information related to these spheres is provided, and their major properties and implications are explained. Regarding the atmosphere, radiation and energy budgets are explained in conjunction with the weather and climate. Concerning the hydrosphere, oceanography is introduced together with marine ecology. Addressing the geosphere, the elements in the Earth's crust and mineral commodities are discussed. Regarding the biosphere, energy is transferred through food chains; the differences between life in water and life on land are examined. Energy flows through and is stored in these spheres; this stored energy is essential to the natural environment and human society. The different primary energy sources are described and divided into non-renewable and renewable sources. Finally, an introduction to human impacts on the natural environment and to major environmental issues is provided.
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| 5. |
- Linné, Philip, 1982, et al.
(författare)
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Regulating Pollution from Ships
- 2016
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Ingår i: Andersson, K. et al (Eds). Shipping and the Environment - Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin Heidelberg : Springer-Verlag. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 75-121
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This chapter begins with a short history of the regulation of ship operations including the regulation of pollution from ships, and then proceeds to its main focus of explaining the basic international legal framework for regulating pollution from ships, the main actors involved in the international regulatory process, and the process of creating environmental regulations for ships via the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The regulation of ship operations has a long history, although the specific regulation of pollution from ships is a relatively recent phenomenon. Over the course of history, the freedom to use the seas in various ways (the principle of freedom) has been balanced by the interests of sovereign States (the principle of sovereignty). As is demonstrated in this chapter, to explain the regulation of pollution from ships at the international regulatory level, a basic understanding of international law and international law of the sea is necessary. However, the regulation of the pollution from ships should also be viewed as a result of negotiations among States with different interests and with different economic and environmental conditions. In this regard, two divisions can be helpful in understanding how the international instruments that regulate pollution from ships are created via IMO: the first is between coastal States, flag States and States with maritime interests, and the second is between developed States and developing states.
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| 6. |
- Salo, Kent, 1967, et al.
(författare)
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Emissions to the air
- 2016
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Ingår i: Shipping and the Environment: Improving Environmental Performance in Marine Transportation. - Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - 9783662490457 ; , s. 169-227
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Seeing the black smoke coming out of the funnel of a manoeuvring ship makes it easy to understand that the ship's propulsion contributes to the emission of air pollutants. However, there is more than meets the eye going up in smoke. A vast majority of ships use fossil fuels, increasing a positive net contribution of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere when they are combusted. Because the fuels that are used are often of low quality and possess a high sulphur content, a number of other air pollutants are also emitted. Emissions to the air from ships include greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide), sulphur and nitrogen oxides, with both acidifying and eutrophication effects, and different forms of particles, with impacts on health and climate. However, not all emissions to the atmosphere from ships originate from the combustion of fuels for propulsion and energy production. The handling of crude oil as cargo and compounds used in refrigeration systems cause emissions of volatile organic compounds and ozone-depleting substances. The sources of the most important emissions and relevant regulations are described in this chapter.
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| 7. |
- Svensson, Erik, 1981, et al.
(författare)
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Environmental Performance Indices for Shipping: Inventory and Evaluation
- 2012
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Ingår i: 2012 International Association of Maritime Economists Conference (IAME 2012 Taipei).
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Increased demand for environmental and sustainability information on products in a life cycle perspective has led to the development of a large number of voluntary initiatives aimed at communicating the environmental performance of sea transport, such as indices and certificates. There is however a lack of scientific studies that applies the research area of environmental indices and indicators to shipping.In the present paper, an inventory found over 30 different environmental initiatives for shipping related to a diversity of stakeholders. An evaluation of three indices was then conducted based on criteria and characteristics in reviewed literature. They each assess environmental performance based on data for individual vessels, which then is aggregated into a final index. These indices could be used for a shipowner to communicate environmental performance of their ships, and for a transport buyer to select ships and shipowners according to their performance results.The indices were found to differ in context, construction, application, transparency as well as users. The paper emphasizes the importance of identifying the needs for the specific user in terms of communication and scope before selecting a particular index. It is concluded that there is a need for a unified system or standardized methods for evaluating environmental performance of ships. This could help to avoid administrative burden of both shipowners and transport buyers. There is also a need for deeper analysis of environmental indices in various shipping markets. With reference to methodological problems of comparing indices, a developed evaluation scheme can be used for further studies on environmental ship indices.
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| 8. |
- Svensson, Erik, 1981, et al.
(författare)
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Inventory and Evaluation of Environmental Performance Indices for Shipping
- 2012
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Increased demand for environmental, energy and sustainability information on products in a life cycle perspective has led to the development of a large number of different voluntary initiatives aimed at communicating the environmental performance of sea transport, such as databases, indices, labels and certificates. There is however a lack of scientific studies that applies the research area of environmental indices to shipping. The majority of previous studies on environmental indices for shipping have focused on comparing indices or to find successful parameters for developing a new index. This study has conducted an inventory of environmental initiatives applicable for communicating environmental performance of ships and shipowners. It has then identified and evaluated voluntary initiatives that are based on an indexing system; defined as ‘environmental performance indices’. The evaluation was conducted on three indices based on principal aspects and criteria found in literature.The results of the inventory showed a large diversity of 38 environmental performance initiatives related to a diversity of stakeholders. They had different scope, target groups and applications. Most existing initiatives are based on a set of environmental requirements or standards, where specific installed equipment, operational measures, management aspects or compliance with environmental legislation are rewarded in one way or another. Such rewards could be score points or for example reduced port dues. Some initiatives were however based on environmental performance data such as specific emission levels. Many further focused on air emissions and energy efficiency or carbon dioxide emissions. Ten initiatives were identified as environmental performance indices, though their inclusion within this definition was later discussed in further analysis.The following three indices were evaluated: (1) the Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator developed by the International Maritime Organization, (2) the Performance Metrics Tool developed by Clean Cargo Working Group, and (3) the Clean Shipping Index developed by the Clean Shipping Project. The indices each assess environmental performance based on data for individual vessels, which then is aggregated into a final index. The last two indices use scoring systems for different environmental areas and include performance requirements. These indices could be used for a shipowner to benchmark and market environmental performance of their ships, and for a transport buyer to select the ships and shipowners according to their performance results. Third-party verification exists for all three indices, which provides quality control of the data used for the performance assessment.It was concluded that the three indices have many similarities, though they show a large variation in their construction and application. The varieties of the three indices could be explained by the variety of stakeholders connected to them. It was concluded that the properties of a particular index depend on the indented use, which in turn depends on the intended users and the developer of the index. It was further concluded that the variety of different initiatives is problematic and shows a need for global standardized methods. The study could contribute to bring order to the variety of concepts of the different initiatives associated with environmental ship indices. It could also identify potential uses and users of the indices. In addition, it could be one way of solving methodological problems of comparison between different indices identified in earlier studies.
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| 9. |
- Svensson, Erik, 1981
(författare)
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Mikroskopiska plastpartiklar i havet: ursprung och effekter i marin miljö
- 2011
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The issue of microscopic plastic particles was reported in Swedish media in 2008 after records of high concentrations in the sea along the Swedish west coast. This study compiles existing information about microscopic plastic particles in the oceans with the purpose to investigate their extent, origin and observed and potential effects on marine organisms. The results show that studies have been conducted since the 1970s, but that it still is an inadequately studied environmental issue. Contemporary studies have shown a globally widespread and increasing distribution of plastic particles in the oceans. Norén (2007) found that the particles were much smaller and far more by number than indicated in previous studies. The results further show a separation of plastic particles in two size intervals; microscopic plastic particles (<0.5 mm) and plastic particles (0.5-5 mm). It was assumed in several studies that plastic particles originate from larger plastic objects that have been fragmented in the ocean. There were divided opinions whether particles less than 0.5 mm are formed by fragmentation or not. No conclusion on the maritime industry’s share of the microscopic particles in the ocean could be drawn, though two studies showed that microscopic plastic fibers were greater in areas with high pleasure craft traffic. Furthermore, three studies were presented that gave indications on the effects of plastic particles on marine organisms. The first showed that plastic particles are eaten by sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea) in a far greater extent than expected. The second showed that microscopic plastic particles are accumulated and transported from the gut of blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) to their circulatory system. The third study showed that organic pollutants can be transferred from plastic particles to lugworm (Arenicola marina). It was concluded that microscopic plastic particles in marine environments are uptaken by marine organisms, but that it is unclear whether it results in adverse effects. The importance of further studies is emphasized, because the smaller the plastic particles are, the risk of accumulation in the tissues of an organism increases. It was further emphasized that policy-makers should focus on preventive measures.
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| 10. |
- Svensson, Erik, 1981
(författare)
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Mikroskopiska plastpartiklar i havet: ursprung och effekter i marin miljö
- 2011
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The issue of microscopic plastic particles was reported in Swedish media in 2008 afterrecords of high concentrations in the sea along the Swedish west coast. This study compilesexisting information about microscopic plastic particles in the oceans with the purpose toinvestigate their extent, origin and observed and potential effects on marine organisms. Theresults show that studies have been conducted since the 1970s, but that it still is aninadequately studied environmental issue. Contemporary studies have shown a globallywidespread and increasing distribution of plastic particles in the oceans. Norén (2007) foundthat the particles were much smaller and far more by number than indicated in previousstudies. The results further show a separation of plastic particles in two size intervals;microscopic plastic particles (
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