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- Kampmann, Tobias Christoph, et al.
(författare)
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3D modelling and sheath folding at the Falun Zn-Pb-Cu-(Au-Ag) massive sulphide deposit and implications for exploration in a 1.9 Ga ore district, Fennoscandian Shield, Sweden
- 2016
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Ingår i: Mineralium Deposita. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0026-4598 .- 1432-1866. ; 51:5, s. 665-680
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The Falun pyritic Zn-Pb-Cu-(Au-Ag) deposit, situated in the Palaeoproterozoic (1.9–1.8 Ga) Bergslagen lithotectonic unit in the south-western part of the Fennoscandian Shield, is one of the major base metal sulphide deposits in Sweden. Altered rocks and ore types at Falun have been metamorphosed and deformed in a heterogeneous ductile manner, strongly modifying mineral assemblages in the original hydrothermal alteration system and the geometry of the deposit. Using a combined methodological approach, including surface mapping of lithologies and structures, drill core logging and microstructural investigation, the polyphase character (D1 and D2) of the ductile deformation is demonstrated and a 3D model for the deposit created. F2 sheath folding along axes that plunge steeply to the south-south-east, parallel to a mineral stretching lineation and the dip direction of the S2 foliation, is suggested as a key deformation mechanism forming steeply plunging, rod-shaped ore bodies. This is in contrast to previous structural models involving fold interference and, in turn, has implications for near-mine exploration, the occurrence of hanging-wall components to the ore body being questioned. Typical rock-forming minerals in the Falun alteration aureole include quartz, biotite/phlogopite, cordierite, anthophyllite and minor almandine, andalusite and chlorite, as well as dolomite, tremolite and actinolite. Where observable, the silicate minerals in the alteration rocks show growth patterns during different phases of the tectonothermal evolution, considerable static grain growth occurring between D1 and D2 and even after D2. A major high-strain zone, characterized by the mineral assemblage talc-chlorite-(quartz-biotite/phlogopite) defines a boundary between northern and southern structural domains at the deposit, and is closely spatially associated with the polymetallic massive sulphide ores. A possible role as a metal-bearing fluid conduit during ore genesis is discussed.
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| 2. |
- Kampmann, Tobias Christoph, 1987-
(författare)
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Age, origin and tectonothermal modification of the Falun pyritic Zn-Pb-Cu-(Au-Ag) sulphide deposit, Bergslagen, Sweden
- 2017
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The Falun pyritic Zn-Pb-Cu-(Au-Ag) sulphide deposit, situated in the Palaeoproterozoic (1.9–1.8 Ga) Bergslagen lithotectonic unit in the south-western part of the Fennoscandian Shield, is one of the major base and precious metal sulphide deposits in Sweden. Felsic volcanic rocks and limestone hosting the deposit, as well as their hydrothermally altered equivalents and the mineralization, were affected by heterogeneous ductile strain and metamorphism under low-pressure, lower amphibolite-facies conditions during the Svecokarelian orogeny (2.0–1.8 Ga). These processes reworked the mineral assemblages of the original hydrothermal system and the mineralization, and also reshaped the structural geometry of the deposit.A three-dimensional modelling approach has been used in order to evaluate geometric relationships between lithologies at the deposit. The polyphase character (D1 and D2) of the strong ductile deformation at Falun is apparent. The main rock-forming minerals in the altered silicate-rich rocks are quartz, biotite and anthophyllite with porphyroblasts of cordierite and garnet, as well as retrogressive chlorite. Major static grain growth occurred between D1 and D2, inferred to represent the peak of metamorphism, as well as after D2 with growth (or recrystallization) of anthophyllite. A major shear zone with chlorite, talc and disseminated sulphides bounds the pyritic Zn-Pb-Cu-rich massive sulphide mineralization to the north, the latter being surrounded elsewhere by disseminated to semi-massive Cu-Au mineralization. F2 sheath folding along axes plunging steeply to the south-south-east is suggested as a key deformation mechanism, accounting for the cone-shaped mineralized bodies, which pinch out at depth, and explaining the similar character of intensely altered rocks on all sides of the massive sulphide mineralization. Immobile-element lithogeochemistry suggests that they share a common volcanic precursor. These relationships are consistent with a model in which the pyritic massive sulphide mineralization is located in the core of a sheath fold structure, surrounded by the same altered stratigraphic footwall rocks with Cu-Au mineralization.The geological evolution in the metavolcanic inlier that hosts the Falun deposit, constrained by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) U–Pb (zircon) geochronology, involved emplacement of a felsic volcanic and sub-volcanic rock suite at 1894±3 Ma, followed by hydrothermal alteration and mineralization. Subsequent burial and intrusion of late- to post-mineralization dykes occurred between 1896±3 Ma and 1891±3 Ma, followed by further burial and emplacement of plutons with variable composition during the time span 1894±3 Ma to 1893±3 Ma. The age determinations for all these magmatic suites overlap within their uncertainties, indicating a rapid sequence of continuous burial and different magmatic pulses. A metamorphic event, herein dated at 1831±8 Ma and 1822±5 Ma (SIMS U–Pb monazite), falls in the age range of a younger Svecokarelian metamorphic episode (M2). U-Th-Pb isotope systematics in monazite was completely reset during this event.During hydrothermal alteration and mineralization, a hot, reducing and acidic fluid carrying metals and sulphur together flowed upward along syn-volcanic faults, leading to intense chloritization, sericitization and silicification of calc-alkaline volcanic rocks in the stratigraphic footwall to the deposit. This resulted in proximal siliceous associations including Fe-rich chlorite, and dominant Mg-rich chlorite and sericite in more peripheral parts. Cu-Au stockwork mineralization formed in the siliceous core of the hydrothermal system as result of fluid cooling. Neutralization of the metal-bearing fluids upon carbonate interaction stratigraphically higher in the sub-seafloor regime led to formation of Zn-Pb-Cu-rich massive sulphide mineralization, the space for which was created by a combination of carbonate dissolution, primary porosity in the overlying volcanic rocks and secondary porosity produced during syn-volcanic faulting. A hybrid model for mineralization is suggested by alteration styles, metal zoning and textures indicating replacement of carbonate rock or highly porous pumice breccia by pyritic massive sulphide. Aspects of a sub-seafloor volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) system and carbonate replacement are both present. Partly Zn-Pb-(Ag) mineralized skarns comprise a separate and subordinate type of mineralization, probably formed after burial of the hydrothermal system to the contact-metasomatic regime.Textures and microstructures in the massive sulphide mineralization indicate that the ductile deformation and metamorphism resulted in internal mechanical and chemical remobilization of sulphide minerals. Laser ablation inductively coupled mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analysis of the main sulphide minerals suggests, for example, that trace elements (including Au) were liberated from pyrite during metamorphism. A system of auriferous quartz veins, affected by D2 ductile strain, occurs in intensely altered and mineralized rocks on the eastern side of the deposit. It is suggested that they formed after the peak of metamorphism and prior to the completion of the D2 tectonic event, as a result of fluid-assisted remobilization of sulphides and Au in the disseminated to semi-massive Cu-Au mineralization and possibly also the massive sulphide mineralization.
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| 4. |
- Kampmann, Tobias Christoph, et al.
(författare)
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Hydrothermal alteration, 3D modeling and sheath folding at the volcanic-hosted Falun Zn-Pb-Cu-(Au-Ag) deposit – implications for exploration in a 1.9 Ga ore district, Fennoscandian Shield, central Sweden
- 2014
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The Paleoproterozoic (1.9 Ga), volcanic-hosted Zn-Pb-Cu-(Au-Ag) sulfide deposit at Falun is located in the Bergslagen lithotectonic unit, central Sweden, which includes one of the major ore districts in the Fennoscandian Shield, northern Europe. The Falun deposit is known mainly as one of the world’s leading copper suppliers over many centuries. During the 20th century, the mine was a major base (Zn, Pb, Cu) and precious (Ag, Au) metal producer until it closed during 1992.This study has the following four aims: (i) Identify the style and spatial distribution of hydrothermal alteration; (ii) determine the geometry of the different types of ore bodies; (iii) provide a mechanism for the structure of the deposit; and (iv) address broader implications for the Bergslagen ore district. Petrographic and structural data were collected during surface mapping and microscope work; modeling of the different ore bodies in 3D space was completed using available mine level maps and data collected during new logging of available drill cores. The Falun deposit is affected by polyphase ductile deformation and metamorphism under amphibolite facies conditions. The metamorphosed alteration rocks are dominated by distal quartz-mica-cordierite-(anthophyllite) and proximal quartz-anthophyllite assemblages, interpreted to represent Si-, Fe-, Mg-metasomatism of felsic volcanic rocks. Dolomite and calc-silicate (tremolite, actinolite, diopside)-skarn assemblages are interpreted as the equivalent alteration of carbonate rocks. Surface mapping in the open pit indicates that the ore bodies are completely enveloped by these altered rocks. Structural data suggest the presence of a reclined F2 fold that plunges steeply to the southeast, with a stretching component defined by a linear grain-shape fabric sub-parallel to the fold axis. Modeling in 3D space reveals the presence of several rod-shaped ore bodies that also plunge steeply to the southeast and thicken and merge upwards into a single ore body that is up to 270 m in diameter at the ground surface. The ore body close to this surface is zoned in a concentric pattern, from a massive, pyritic Zn-Pb-Cu-sulfide core in the inner part to a more Cu-rich sulfide zone and then a semi-massive to disseminated Cu-Au mineralization in the outer part. The cone-shaped and zoned ore bodies are interpreted as steeply-plunging megascopic sheath folds, formed in a ductile, high-strain tectonic regime. The viscosity contrast between competent, strongly silicified and metamorphosed felsic volcanic host rock and softer massive sulfide ore is suggested to have enhanced the development of these sheath folds. Steeply plunging, rod-shape geometries have commonly been reported for several volcanic-hosted sulfide and Fe oxide ore deposits in the Bergslagen lithotectonic unit and megascopic sheath folds have been identified in a high-strain belt in the northern part of this unit. If sheath fold formation can be confirmed as a key deformation mechanism for ore bodies in this mineral district, in contrast to the classical model of dome and basin fold interference structure, this will influence near-mine exploration strategies. Previous structural concepts and models for footwall/hanging wall relationships will need radical revision and areas previously considered as barren hanging wall lithologies may have a higher exploration potential.
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| 5. |
- Kampmann, Tobias Christoph, et al.
(författare)
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Structural investigation and 3D modelling of the Falun pyritic Zn-Pb-Cu-(Au-Ag) sulphide deposit, Bergslagen region, south-central Sweden
- 2013
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- One of the prominent ore deposits of the Bergslagen region in south-central Sweden is located in Falun in the northern part of this mining district. A belt of 1.91-1.89 Ga metavolcanic rocks hosts both the ores and an alteration aureole of several hundreds to thousands of metres in extent at the ground surface. Analysis of the structures in the area reveals a polyphase ductile deformational history and a major, steeply plunging F2 reclined fold. 3D modelling of the boundary surface to the pyritic Zn-Pb-Cu sulphide ore has been used to visualize the geometry of this ore body at depth, constraining its steeply plunging rod-like and NW-SE elongate shape and a geometric control by the F2 fold structure.
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