| 1. |
- Mishra, Pragya, 1989-, et al.
(författare)
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Energy efficiency contributions and losses during selective laser melting
- 2018
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Ingår i: Journal of laser applications. - : American Institute of Physics (AIP). - 1042-346X .- 1938-1387. ; 30:3
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Selective Laser Melting technique, SLM, requires remelting of adjacent tracks to avoid cavities and other imperfections. Usually, very conservative process parameters are chosen to avoid imperfections, resulting in a low building rate. The process efficiency relates the energy required for the generation of a new track to the laser beam power. For SLM this efficiency is determined by the process parameters, specifically hatch distance, layer depth and scanning speed, independent of the resulting process mechanisms. For SLM the process efficiency often very low, typically 2‑20%. Apart from beam reflection losses of normally 50-60%, significant energy losses result from the remelting of surrounding layers. Some areas can even experience multiple remelting cycles. Further losses originate inevitably from substrate heating. A simplified mathematical model of the track cross section and the corresponding layer overlap geometry has been developed, to analyze the different loss contributions from remelting with respect to the process parameters. The model explains why increasing the hatch distance or the layer depth proportionally increases the process efficiency. However, these increases are limited by cavity formation. The cross section of the overlapping tracks generated by SLM can be regarded as an experimental fingerprint linked to the process conditions. The track cross section geometries can significantly fluctuate, in terms of area and coordinate position. The fluctuations require additional reduction of the hatch distance or layer depth, to ensure robust, cavity-free processing. Examples are presented for stainless steel where a 180 W laser beam has led to a process efficiency of 5-11%, proportional to a hatch distance that was increased from 50 to 110 µm, for 40 µm powder layer depth, at a speed of 50 m/min.
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| 2. |
- Fedina, Tatiana, et al.
(författare)
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In-situ observation of melt pool phenomena in directed energy deposition of iron ore andaluminum materials
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This study reports on the high-speed imaging investigation possibilities of laser beammaterialsurface interaction when processing Fe2O3-Al powders and an Fe2O3 powder-AlSI5wire combination in directed energy deposition. In-situ observation of various melt poolphenomena and exothermic reaction behavior of the material systems using high-speed imagingwas at the focus of this research work. Depending on the feed material arrangement (powderpowderor powder-wire) and process parameters, significant differences in the melt poolformation were observed, including melt pool separation into two distinct phases and theoccurrence of thermite reaction at different stages of the process. In addition to that, theinfluence of feed materials and laser power on the thermite reaction time was discussed in detail,showing their dissimilar behavior. During laser processing of the powder-powder arrangement,the reaction duration increased with the increase of laser power, whereas the powder-wireconfiguration demonstrated the opposite trend, most likely due to the smaller surface contactarea, developed between the iron ore particles and the AlSi5 wire. Chemical composition,morphological appearances and phase accumulation were analyzed using scanning electronmicroscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The obtained data were used toestablish a connection between the melt pool and the reaction products. High-speed imagingwas utilized throughout the experiments to observe and capture the process phenomena.
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| 3. |
- Fedina, Tatiana, et al.
(författare)
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Laser-assisted reduction of iron ore using aluminum powder
- 2023
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Ingår i: Journal of laser applications. - : American Institute of Physics (AIP). - 1042-346X .- 1938-1387. ; 35:2
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This study reports on the laser-assisted reduction of iron ore waste using Al powder as areducing agent. Due to climate change and the global warming situation, it has become ofparamount importance to search for and/or develop green and sustainable processes for ironand steel production. In this regard, a new method for iron ore utilization is proposed in thiswork, investigating the possibility of iron ore waste reduction via metallothermic reaction withAl powder. Laser processing of iron ore fines was performed, focusing on the Fe2O3-Alinteraction behavior and extent of the iron ore reduction. The reaction between the materialsproceeded in a rather intense uncontrolled manner which led to a formation of Fe-rich domainsand alumina as two separate phases. In addition, a combination of Al2O3 and Fe2O3 melts aswell as transitional areas such as intermetallics were observed, suggesting the occurrence ofincomplete reduction reaction in isolated regions. The reduced iron droplets were prone toacquire a sphere-like shape and concentrated mainly near the surface of the Al2O3 melt or at theinterface with the iron oxide. Both SEM, EDS and WDS analyses were employed to analyzechemical composition, microstructure and morphological appearances of the reaction products.High-speed imaging was used to study the process phenomena and observe differences in themovement behavior of the particles. Furthermore, the measurements acquired from X-raycomputed microtomography revealed that approximately 2.4 % of iron was reduced during thelaser processing of Fe2O3-Al powder bed, most likely due to insufficient reaction time orinappropriate equivalence ratio of the two components.
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| 4. |
- Heidowitzsch, Maximilian, et al.
(författare)
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Grain size manipulation by wire laser direct energy deposition of 316L with ultrasonic assistance
- 2023
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Ingår i: Journal of laser applications. - : AIP Publishing. - 1042-346X .- 1938-1387. ; 35:3
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The epitaxial growth of coarse and columnar grain structures along the build direction of additive manufactured metals is a usual phenomenon. As a result, as-built components often exhibit pronounced anisotropic mechanical properties, reduced ductility, and, hence, a high cracking susceptibility. To enhance the mechanical properties and processability of additive manufactured parts, the formation of equiaxed and fine grained structures is thought to be most beneficial. In this study, the potential of grain refinement by ultrasonic excitation of the melt pool during laser wire additive manufacturing has been investigated. An ultrasound system was developed and integrated in a laser wire deposition machine. AISI 316L steel was used as a substrate and feedstock material. A conversion of coarse, columnar grains (d(m) = 284.5 mu m) into fine, equiaxed grains (d(m) = 130.4 mu m) and a weakening of typical -fiber texture with increasing amplitude were verified by means of light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and electron backscatter diffraction analysis. It was demonstrated that the degree of grain refinement could be controlled by the regulation of ultrasound amplitude. No significant changes in the dendritic structure have been observed. The combination of sonotrode/melt pool direct coupling and the laser wire deposition process represents a pioneering approach and promising strategy to investigate the influence of ultrasound on grain refinement and microstructural tailoring.
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| 5. |
- Müller, Michael, et al.
(författare)
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Laser-based directed energy deposition and characterisation of cBN-reinforced NiAl-based coatings
- 2024
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Ingår i: The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. - : Springer Nature. - 0268-3768 .- 1433-3015. ; 134:1-2, s. 657-675
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Within this study, the alloy NiAl–2.5Ta–7.5Cr is investigated as a new matrix material for cBN-reinforced abrasive turbine blade tip coatings as currently used NiCoCrAlY matrix alloys suffer from insufficient strength at the high operating temperatures. Laser-based directed energy deposition with blown powder was applied to produce cBN reinforced NiAl-based coatings on monocrystalline CMSX-4 substrates. For this, powdery titanium-coated cBN and NiAl–2.5Ta–7.5Cr material were co-injected into the process zone to achieve an in situ formation of a NiAl–2.5Ta–7.5Cr/cBN composite. In order to overcome challenges such as cracking susceptibility, inductive preheating of the substrate up to 800 °C was used. Optical and scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, as well as electron backscatter diffraction were applied to analyse the fabricated samples’ microstructure. Additionally, the mechanical properties were evaluated by means of microhardness mappings. This work demonstrates the feasibility of in situ forming a metal matrix composite with a homogeneous distribution of cBN particles. The results show the beneficial effect of high-temperature preheating on the crack formation. However, the study also reveals challenges such as cracking induced by the injected cBN particles as well as severe intermixing of substrate and coating, which yields spatially resolved deviations in the chemical composition and resulting variations in microstructure and hardness.
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| 6. |
- Müller, Michael, et al.
(författare)
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Microstructure of NiAl-Ta-Cr in situ alloyed by induction-assisted laser-based directed energy deposition
- 2024
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Ingår i: Materials & design. - : Elsevier Ltd. - 0264-1275 .- 1873-4197. ; 238
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The development of new high temperature materials for coatings as well as structural components is an important topic to contribute to a higher efficiency and sustainability of e.g. gas turbine engines. One promising new class of high temperature materials are NiAl-based alloys. Within this study, the microstructure and microhardness of NiAl-Ta-Cr alloys with varying Cr and Ta content were investigated. Graded specimens were fabricated by laser-based directed energy deposition utilizing an in situ alloying approach by mixing elemental Ta and Cr as well as pre-alloyed NiAl powder. Thermodynamic calculations were performed to design the alloy compositions beforehand. Inductive preheating of the substrate was used to counter the challenge of cracking due to the high brittleness. The results show that the cracking decreases with increasing preheating temperature. However, even at 700 °C, the cracking cannot be fully eliminated. Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and electron backscatter diffraction revealed the formation of the phases B2-NiAl, A2-Cr and C14-NiAlTa within NiAl-Ta and NiAl-Cr alloys. For NiAl-Ta-Cr compositions, deviations regarding the phase formation between calculation and experiment were observed. Maximum hardness values were achieved within the NiAl-Ta and NiAl-Ta-Cr systems for the eutectic compositions at 14 at.-% Ta with maximum values above 900 HV0.1.
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| 7. |
- Brandau, Benedikt, et al.
(författare)
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Absorbance determination of a powder bed by high resolution coaxial multispectral imaging in laser powder bed fusion
- 2024
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Ingår i: Optics and Laser Technology. - : Elsevier. - 0030-3992 .- 1879-2545. ; 168
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This study presents an approach for in-situ monitoring of laser powder bed fusion. Using standard laser optics, coaxial high-resolution multispectral images of powder beds are acquired in a pre-objective scanning configuration. A continuous overview image of the entire 114 × 114 mm powder bed can be generated, detecting objects down to 20 µm in diameter with a maximum offset of 22–49 µm. Multispectral information is obtained by capturing images at 6 different wavelengths from 405 nm to 850 nm. This allows in-line determination of the absorbance of the powder bed with a maximum deviation of 2.5% compared to the absorbance spectra of established methods. For the qualification of this method, ray tracing simulations on powder surfaces and tests with 20 different powders have been carried out. These included different particle sizes, aged and oxidized powders.
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| 8. |
- Brandau, Benedikt, et al.
(författare)
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Absorbance study of powder conditions for laser additive manufacturing
- 2022
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Ingår i: Materials & design. - : Elsevier. - 0264-1275 .- 1873-4197. ; 216
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Absorbance is often used for simulations or validation of process parameters for powder-based laser materials processing. In this work, the absorbance of 39 metal powders for additive manufacturing is determined at 20 laser wavelengths. Different grain sizes and aging states for: steels, aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, Nitinol, high entropy alloy, chromium, copper, brass and iron ore were analyzed. For this purpose, the absorbance spectrum of the powders was determined via a dual-beam spectrometer in the range of λ = 330 - 1560 nm. At the laser wavelengths of λ = 450 nm, 633 nm and 650 nm, the absorbance averaged over all materials was found to increase by a factor of 2.4 up to 3.3 compared to the usual wavelength of λ = 1070 nm, with minimal variations in absorbance between materials. In the investigation of the aged or used powders, a loss of absorbance was detectable. Almost no changes from the point of view of processing aged and new AlSi10Mg powders, is expected for laser sources with λ = 450 nm. The resulting measurements provide a good basis for process parameters for a variety of laser wavelengths and materials, as well as a data set for improved absorbance simulations.
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| 9. |
- Brandau, Benedikt, et al.
(författare)
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Angular dependence of coaxial and quasi-coaxial monitoring systems for process radiation analysis in laser materials processing
- 2022
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Ingår i: Optics and lasers in engineering. - : Elsevier. - 0143-8166 .- 1873-0302. ; 155
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Process monitoring is becoming increasingly important in laser-based manufacturing and is of particular importance in the field of additive manufacturing [e.g. Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF)]. Process monitoring enables a reduction of production costs and a lower time-to-market. Furthermore, the data can be used to create a digital twin of the workpiece. There are already many established processing head-integrated monitoring systems for such applications as the multispectral analysis of process radiation. However, the monitoring of complex signals in systems with F-Theta scanner lenses is very challenging and requires specially adapted optics or measuring sensors.In this paper a potential arrangement for spectroscopy-based process monitoring in pre-objective scanning is presented. The process radiation was monitored using a coaxial and a quasi-coaxial observation system. The measurements were carried out on both a solid and a powder coated sample of 2.4668 (Inconel 718) to show the potential use of these systems in laser-based additive manufacturing. In order to obtain comprehensive data about the process signal, the process zone was analyzed at different angles of incidence (AOI) of the laser using a high-speed camera (HSI) and a spectrometer. The connection between the HSI and the spectral measurements is discussed. The ionization of the material and the formation of a plasma was observed and found to lose intensity as the angle of incidence increases. A model of the system that demonstrates the intensity of the emitted radiation of the plasma was created. It enables the measured values to be corrected. The corrected measurement data can be used to detect impurities or a non-ideal energy input across the entire processing field, which is a move towards robust process monitoring.
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| 10. |
- Brueckner, Frank, et al.
(författare)
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Enhanced manufacturing possibilities using multi-materials in laser metal deposition
- 2018
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Ingår i: Journal of laser applications. - : American Institute of Physics (AIP). - 1042-346X .- 1938-1387. ; 26:2, s. 10-12
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Additive manufacturing (AM) addresses various benefits as the buildup of complex shaped parts, the possibility of functional integration, reduced lead times or the use of difficult machinable materials compared to conventional manufacturing possibilities. Beside these advantages, the use of more than one material in a component would strongly increase the field of applications in typical AM branches as energy, aerospace, or medical technology. By means of multi-material buildups, cost-intensive alloys could be only used in high-loaded areas of the part, whereas the remaining part could be fabricated with cheaper compositions. The selection of combined materials strongly depends on the requested thermophysical but also mechanical properties. Within this contribution, examples (e.g., used in the turbine business) show how alloys can be arranged to fit together, e.g., in terms of a well-chosen coefficient of thermal expansion. As can be seen in nature, the multi-material usage can be characterized by sharp intersections from one material to the other (e.g., in case of a thin corrosion protection), but also by graded structures enabling a smoother material transition (e.g., in case of dissimilar materials which are joined together without defects). The latter is shown for an example from aerospace within this paper. Another possibility is the simultaneous placement of several materials, e.g., hard carbide particles placed in a more ductile matrix composition. These particles can be varied in size (e.g., TiC versus WC). Also the ratio between carbides and matrix alloy can be adjusted depending on its application. Especially, nozzle-based free form fabrication technologies, e.g., laser metal deposition, enable the utilization of more than one material. Within this contribution, possibilities to feed more than one filler material are demonstrated. In addition, results of multi-material processes are shown. Finally, this work focuses on different (potential) applications, mainly on power generation, but also for medical technology or wear resistant components.
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