| 1. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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China's Emerging Global Middle Class
- 2017
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Ingår i: The latest changes of income distribution pattern in China - A study on the income distribution of Chinese residents (V). - Beijing, Kina : China Financial & Economic Publishing House.. - 9787509578971 ; , s. 351-385
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This chapter seeks to throw new light on the emergence of the Chinese economic middle class using data from the China Household Income Project from 2002, 2007, and 2013. We find that between 2002 and 2013 China’s income distribution was transformed from a pyramid shape, with a majority having rather low income, to a more olive shape, as the middle class emerged. Defining “middle class” as having an income high enough not to be regarded as poor but also low enough not to be regarded as rich if living in a high-income country, we find that the share of China’s population that was middle class was extremely small in 2002, larger but still less than 10 percent in 2007, but it expanded rapidly from 2007 to 2013 to become one-fifth of China’s population, equivalent to roughly 250 million people. China’s middle class remains largely urban and is concentrated in the East; only a small minority of rural households and of rural migrants living in urban areas is middle class. We use simulations to investigate whether the growth of China’s middle class reflects across-the-board income growth versus a redistribution of income to the middle, and to project growth in the size of the middle class to 2020. If all household incomes grow uniformly by 6.5 percent per annum to 2020, then China’s middle class will almost double in size and in 2020 a majority of urban residents, but only 13 percent of rural residents, will be classified as middle class. We examine the characteristics of China’s middle class and find it to be distinctive in terms of its sources of income, location of residence, savings and consumption patterns, education, and Communist Party membership.
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| 2. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Unequal Growth: How Household Incomes and Poverty in Urban China Have Developed since 1988, with an Emphasis on the Period from 2007 to 2013
- 2017
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Ingår i: The Latest Changes of Income Distribution Pattern in China - A study on the income distribution of Chinese residents (V)). - Beijing, Kina : China Financial & Economic Publishing House. - 9787509578971 ; , s. 119-139
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This chapter investigates how household income, income inequality, and poverty among urban residents in China have developed since 1988, with an emphasis on the period from 2007 to 2013. We use data from the China Household Income Project (CHIP) to show that during a period when many countries in the West were experiencing stagnating or falling incomes, household incomes in urban China were growing by an average of 7 percent per annum. However, unlike during previous periods, earnings were growing by not more than 3 percent per annum, but pensions and imputed rents of owner-occupied housing were growing more rapidly. The trend whereby fewer persons in urban China have incomes that are lower than the poverty line, expressed as the constant purchasing power, continued between 2007 and 2013. We also show that income growth from 2007 to 2013 was slower in the lower part of the income distribution and thus the trend of increased income inequality in urban China continue d. This also applied to the number of people falling below the relative poverty line
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| 3. |
- Song, Jin, et al.
(författare)
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China's Urban Gender Wage Gap: A New Direction?
- 2017
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Ingår i: The Latest Changes of Income Distribution Pattern in China - A study on the income distribution of Chinese residents (V). - Beijing, Kina : China Financial & Economic Publishing House. - 9787509578971 ; , s. 285-326
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Using data from the urban household surveys of the China Household Income Project for the years 1995, 2002, 2007 and 2013, we provide consistent estimates of the gender wage gap in urban China and investigate those factors that have contributed to this gap. Similar to past studies, we find a substantial and progressive widening of the gap from 1995 to 2007. Based on new data for 2013, however, we find that from 2007 to 2013 the gender wage gap narrowed. For 2013 we estimate the gender wage gap at between 19 percent and 25 percent. Oaxaca- Blinder decompositions reveal that the contributions of the differences in characteristics between women and men to the wage gap declined over time, and by 2013 the gap is largely unexplained. We identify key factors underlying the gender wage gap in recent years, specifically, individual characteristics, such as age, education, marriage, and children, as well as employment sector and occupation
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