| 1. |
- Andersson, Joel
(author)
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Paleoproterozoic deformation in the Kiruna‑Gällivare area in northern Norrbotten, Sweden : Setting, character, age, and control of iron oxide-apatite deposits
- 2021
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Doctoral thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- This thesis covers the structural evolution of the Kiruna‑Gällivare area in the northern Norrbotten ore province, Sweden. The study area hosts several economically significant iron oxide-apatite (IOA) deposits and includes the type locality for this ore type. Despite the abundant work on the genesis of IOA-systems, their structural setting and control is poorly constrained. This highlights the need for multi-scale structural studies that can help to unravel structural controls on the genesis and overprinting deformation histories. Four IOA-hosting key study areas were under investigation covering multi-scale structural controls from regional to deposit scale. Extensive geological mapping focused on structures, stratigraphy, and hydrothermal alteration, combined with multi-scale structural analysis and U-Pb geochronology was conducted. Results are synthesized in a time-constrained tectonothermal model for IOA deposits and host rocks of the Kiruna‑Gällivare area.The results indicate that the IOA deposits in Norrbotten formed in an overall extensional regime coeval with basin development in a backarc setting. The onset of basin development is indicated by a U-Pb age in zircon from a volcanic intercalation in a stratigraphically basal alluvial conglomerate of the ore-bearing sequence. A titanite age indicates that an ore-proximal cataclastic fault has syn-volcanic origin and formed coeval with basin development and ore formation. A similar origin is postulated for ore-proximal biotite-bearing structures at the Malmberget IOA deposit. In comparison with Kiruna, the Malmberget area experienced higher metamorphic conditions and records a more complex deformation history. Following backarc extension, subsequent crustal shortening resulted in basin inversion and re-activation of structures. Crustal scale, reverse shear zones developed in favourable lithologies and inferred pre-existing structures during D1. The timing of D1 crustal shortening coincides with peak metamorphism (M1) and is bracketed by crosscutting relationships. In contrast, the timing of an overprinting D2 crustal shortening is directly constrained by U-Pb geochronology in titanite indicating an age of approx. 1.8 Ga during an event tentatively interpreted to have lasted up to 20 m.y. This time span is coeval with the exhumation of the Kiruna mining district as recorded by an U‑Pb reset age in apatite in association to an IOA deposit. The D2 deformation is characterized by reactivation of older structures and responsible for juxtaposition of blocks from different crustal levels and tectonic exhumation into upper crustal domains. Transposition of fabrics and ore bodies into re-activated listric faults during basin inversion explains sub-parallel relationships between the ore-proximal structures, bedding, and stratiform/stratabound orebodies.Sodic-calcic + Fe ± Cl alteration is widespread and generally sits in early structural positions and interpreted as pre‑ to syn‑D1. However, U-Pb titanite results indicate that sodic-calcic alteration was developed also during the younger D2 event and shows that the alteration style is temporally and spatially widely distributed. Commonly, the alteration styles associated with D2 deformation are potassic in character and associated to Fe- and Cu-sulphide minerals. These potassic alteration assemblages sit in structurally late positions, often brittle in character. Sulphides were remobilized into D2-structures and the entrapment style is mainly controlled by rock competency.A least two additional overprinting deformation phases are identified (D3 and D4). Clockwise rotation of the overall crustal shortening direction resulted in a gentle refolding of the inverted basin and influences the shape of some IOA deposits in the Kiruna mining district. Dominant joint structures at the Malmberget IOA deposit are indicated as relatively early features and their development is controlled by pre-existing foliation and crosscut by hydrothermally altered structures, that may be coeval with hydraulic fracturing in the Kiruna mining district that crosscut all other fabrics.
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| 2. |
- Bauer, Tobias E., Associate professor, 1982-, et al.
(author)
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Analysis of data from Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) in a Virtual Reality environment
- 2019
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In: Proceedings of the Visual3D conference 2019, 1–2 October 2019, Uppsala, Sweden: Visualization of 3D/4D models in geosciences, exploration and mining. - : Luleå University of Technology. ; , s. 19-19
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The use of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) is getting increasingly popular for many different types of applications. The field of geology is slowly catching up resulting in new and innovative UAS solutions for various kinds of airborne measurement techniques. These techniques comprise a wide range of geophysical and remote sensing methods used to investigate the sub-surface. At Luleå University of Technology two different types of UAS are used in combination with a Virtual Reality environment in order to analyze geological structures and related ore deposits and mineralizations. The two UAS comprise a) a custom made quadrocopter (HUGIN) with a pay load of approx. 3.5 kg and an operational time of 5 times (batteries) maximum 35 minutes depending on payload, ambient temperatures and wind speed; and b) a foldable DJI Mavic Pro with an operational time of 3 times 30 minutes. The HUGIN system can be operated with a high-resolution optical camera for photogrammetry surveys and a 3-axial fluxgate magnetometer for measuring magnetic anomalies within bedrock and ultimately delineating geological structures. The system is highly flexible and a thermal camera is currently added to the system in order detect water fluxes in relation to geological structures or exothermal mineral processes. The DJI system is equipped with an optical camera for photogrammetric surveying and is a highly valuable tool in remote areas due to its lightweight and compact construction.Data acquired from both UAS is subsequently analysed in a Virtual Reality lab utilizing a 6m wide screen with active stereo functions. Photogrammetry data is first processed using the Aigsoft software package following a Structure for Motion (SfM) workflow where dense point cloud models and subsequently meshed and textured 3D surface models are produced. These models are then converted and transferred to the GeoVisionary software package that allows visualization of models in stereo 3D view. This allows digitizing geological structures such as foliation, fractures, and faults among others in an immersive 3D environment and provides an efficient tool complimentary to traditional field mapping. In particular, this makes it possible to capture and analyse data from hardly accessible and dangerous areas such as rock faces in open pits. Another complimentary method of data analysis comprises SCAT analysis of the meshed surfaces using the MOVE software package.
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| 3. |
- Kampmann, Tobias Christoph, 1987-, et al.
(author)
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The benefits of organized networking and matchmaking for the development of 3D/4D geomodel visualization
- 2019
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In: Proceedings of the Visual3D conference 2019, 1–2 October 2019, Uppsala, Sweden. - Luleå, Sweden : Luleå University of Technology. ; , s. 43-43
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- While huge territory of the EU shows a very high exploration potential and many EU countries remain attractive to investors (e.g. Fraser Institute, 2015), a mere 4% of global exploration expenditure is currently invested within European countries. One tool to trigger a higher degree of investment in exploration and to secure the domestic supply of both main commodities and critical raw materials (CRM) is to enhance our three-dimensional geometric understanding of the Earth’s crust.For these reasons, EIT Raw Materials decided to fund the Visual3D network of infrastructure (NoI) for three years (2017–2019). Visual3D involves to-date 14 partner organisations from nine EU countries. The NoI aims to integrate expertise within exploration and 3D modelling from industry, academia and research institutes, with the ambition to increase the understanding of geological bodies in 3D and 4D through improved visualisation techniques. The network believes firmly that the integration of novel visualization technologies (e.g. virtual and augmented reality) into workflows of exploration, mining and geoscientific research will bring a much-needed innovation boost to the European raw materials sector and increase its competitiveness.During its first year, Visual3D has compiled the network expertise and infrastructure regarding visualization tools available at the partner facilities. An overview of this infrastructure, as well as projects conducted by network partners is available on the Visual3D homepage (www.visual3d.info). The network also managed to identify common issues in the field of geomodelling, the solutions to which may be facilitated by a pan-European network approach, such as data compatibility, communication of geomodels, as well as complexity and variety of software. Subsequent years have been dedicated to the conceptualization of possible projects in order to solve the issues name above, as well as matchmaking to find expert consortia for these projects.So far, four workshops including project partners and invited external stakeholders have been held. Networking and matchmaking during these workshops has resulted in successful project proposals in the EIT RawMaterials KAVA calls for educational (MireBooks), as well as upscaling projects (FARMIN). Both these projects are presented at the Visual3D conference 2019. Further project ideas have been discussed within Visual3D and will be developed further.The benefits of organized networking in novel research and developments fields, such as visualization of 3D/4D models for exploration and geosciences, has become apparent during the lifetime of the Visual3D network. The network partners would encourage pan-European funding institutions such as EIT RawMaterials to provide continuous funding to similar networking initiatives, especially in highly innovative and novel research fields. Well-organized communication between different stakeholders is the basis of technological innovation and has the potential to give the European raw materials sector the leading edge in this highly competitive global market.
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| 4. |
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| 5. |
- Andersson, Joel B. H., et al.
(author)
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Structural controls on sulphide (re)-distribution in Kiruna
- 2019
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In: Proceedings of the 15th SGA Biennial Meeting, 27-30 August. - : University of Glasgow Publicity Services. ; , s. 115-118
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- In this study, we investigate a potential structural control on sulphide distribution in phyllite from the Kiruna area, northern Norrbotten, Sweden. We use X-ray tomography and X-ray fluorescence analyzed in tandem on a 40 cm section of oriented drill core. Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive Spectrometry are used in combination with optical microscopy to analyze mineralogy and microstructures. The results show that sulphides are distributed along So bedding planes, re-distributed along S-2 axial planar cleavage planes, and trapped by F-2-hinge zones and shear bands visible as elevated sulphide concentrations. The results of this study underlines the strength of X-ray tomography to image 3D geological structures and their relation to mineral distributions.
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| 6. |
- Andersson, Joel B.H., et al.
(author)
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Structural Evolution of the Central Kiruna Area, Northern Norrbotten, Sweden : Implications on the Geologic Setting Generating Iron Oxide-Apatite and Epigenetic Iron and Copper Sulfides
- 2021
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In: Economic geology and the bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists. - : Society of Economic Geologists. - 0361-0128 .- 1554-0774. ; 116:8, s. 1981-2009
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- To guide future exploration, this predominantly field based study has investigated the structural evolution of the central Kiruna area, the type locality for iron oxide-apatite deposits that stands for a significant amount of the European iron ore production. Using a combination of geologic mapping focusing on structures and stratigraphy, petrography with focus on microstructures, X-ray computed tomography imaging of sulfide-structure relationships, and structural 2D-forward modeling, a structural framework is provided including spatial-temporal relationships between iron oxide-apatite emplacement, subeconomic Fe and Cu sulfide mineralization, and deformation. These relationships are important to constrain as a guidance for exploration in iron oxide-apatite and iron oxide copper-gold prospective terrains and may help to understand the genesis of these deposit types. Results suggest that the iron oxide-apatite deposits were emplaced in an intracontinental back-arc basin, and they formed precrustal shortening under shallow crustal conditions. Subsequent east-west crustal shortening under greenschist facies metamorphism inverted the basin along steep to moderately steep E-dipping structures, often subparallel with bedding and lithological contacts, with reverse, oblique to dip-slip, east-block-up sense of shears. Fe and Cu sulfides associated with Fe oxides are hosted by structures formed during the basin inversion and are spatially related to the iron oxide-apatite deposits but formed in fundamentally different structural settings and are separated in time. The inverted basin was gently refolded and later affected by hydraulic fracturing, which represent the last recorded deformation-hydrothermal events affecting the crustal architecture of central Kiruna.
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| 7. |
- Andersson, Joel, et al.
(author)
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Evolution of structures and hydrothermal alteration in a Palaeoproterozoic supracrustal belt : Constraining paired deformation–fluid flow events in an Fe and Cu–Au prospective terrain in northern Sweden
- 2020
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In: Solid Earth. - : Copernicus publications. - 1869-9510 .- 1869-9529. ; 11:2, s. 547-578
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- An approximately 90 km long Palaeoproterozoic supracrustal belt in the northwestern Norrbotten ore province (northernmost Sweden) was investigated to characterize its structural components, assess hydrothermal alteration–structural geology correlations, and constrain a paired deformation–fluid flow evolution for the belt. New geological mapping of five key areas (Eustiljåkk, Ekströmsberg, Tjårrojåkka, Kaitum West, and Fjällåsen–Allavaara) indicates two major compressional events (D1 and D2) have affected the belt, with each associated with hydrothermal alteration types typical for iron oxide–apatite and iron oxide Cu–Au systems in the region. Early D1 generated a regionally distributed, penetrative S1 foliation and oblique reverse shear zones that show a southwest-block-up sense of shear that formed in response to NE–SW crustal shortening. Peak regional metamorphism at epidote–amphibolite facies broadly overlaps with this D1 event. Based on overprinting relationships, D1 is associated with regional scapolite ± albite, magnetite + amphibole, and late calcite alteration of mafic rock types. These hydrothermal mineral associations linked to D1 structures may form part of a regionally pervasive evolving fluid flow event but are separated in this study by crosscutting relationships.During D2 deformation, folding of S0–S1 structures generated F2 folds with steeply plunging fold axes in low-strain areas. NNW-trending D1 shear zones experienced reverse dip-slip reactivation and strike-slip-dominated movements along steep, E–W-trending D2 shear zones, producing brittle-plastic structures. Hydrothermal alteration linked to D2 structures is a predominantly potassic–ferroan association comprising K-feldspar ± epidote ± quartz ± biotite ± magnetite ± sericite ± sulfides. Locally, syn- or post-tectonic calcite is the main alteration mineral in D2 shear zones that intersect mafic rocks. Our results highlight the importance of combining structural geology with the study of hydrothermal alterations at regional to belt scales to understand the temporal–spatial relationship between mineralized systems. Based on the mapping results and microstructural investigations as well as a review of earlier tectonic models presented for adjacent areas, we suggest a new structural model for this part of the northern Fennoscandian Shield. The new model emphasizes the importance of reactivation of early structures, and the model harmonizes with tectonic models presented by earlier workers based mainly on petrology of the northern Norrbotten area.
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| 8. |
- Autio, U.A., et al.
(author)
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Magnetotelluric array in the central Finnish Lapland II : 3-D inversion and tectonic implications
- 2020
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In: Tectonophysics. - : Elsevier. - 0040-1951 .- 1879-3266. ; 794
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The northern part of the Fennoscandian shield records several Palaeoproterozoic phases of rifting, crustal shortening, metamorphism and structural reactivation. The geologic history has left behind a complex crustal geoelectric structure as evidenced by magnetotelluric (MT) data from the central Finnish Lapland acquired in the context of the MaSca-project in 2014. The data are characterized by strong 3-D effects such as high phase tensor skew values and anomalous induction vectors. Interestingly, however, at the same time a dominant E-W principal direction from the phase tensor data can be inferred. 3-D conductivity models derived using the ModEM code display, high crustal conductance (> 10,000 S) in the vicinity of the Central Lapland Greenstone Belt, the Peräpohja Belt and the Kuusamo Belt. Conductors in the northern and southern part of the study area are separated by a resistor coinciding with the Central Lapland Granitoid Complex. A remarkable feature is an arc-shaped conductor inside the northern part of the Central Lapland Granitoid Complex, which continues into the Central Lapland Greenstone Belt in the north. The conductor is associated with a major induction vector anomaly and also coincides with extreme responses (negative phase tensor principal values), which are discussed in an accompanying paper. The conductive structures in the models are interpreted as deeply buried graphite and sulphide bearing metasedimentary rocks or as reactivated Archaean shear zones. The revealed geoelectric structures also partly correlate with seismic reflection and other geophysical data from the area. A possible explanation for the observed pervasive E-W principal direction of the phase tensor data could be the aulacogen (failed rift) suggested in recent tectonic evolution models.
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| 9. |
- Bauer, Tobias E., Associate professor, 1982-, et al.
(author)
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The structural setting of the Barsele Au deposit, Sweden
- 2019
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In: Proceedings of the 15th SGA Biennial Meeting, 27-30 August. - : University of Glasgow Publicity Services. ; , s. 627-630
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Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The Barsele Au deposit is hosted in Paleoproterozoic rocks that were subject to multiple deformation events during the Svecofennian orogeny 1.9-1.8 Ga ago. Rocks have been subjected to an approx. N-S-directed extensional event (1.89 Ga) potentially responsible for the formation of VMS deposits. The crustal extension was followed by a compressional event under ductile conditions and related basin inversion (D-2; 1.87 Ga) and overprinted by a brittle event at 1.8 Ga (D-3). The distribution of alteration minerals and veins suggests multiple phases of fluid flow and remobilisation. The latest phase of enrichment appears to be coupled to low-angle thrusting from ESE and brittle reactivation of earlier structures with emplacement of quartz veins along fault planes and tensile structures in an oblique Riedel system.
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| 10. |
- Bauer, Tobias, Associate professor, 1982-, et al.
(author)
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Regional structural setting of late-orogenic IOCG mineralization along the northern Nautanen deformation zone, Norrbotten, Sweden
- 2023
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In: Ore Geology Reviews. - : Elsevier. - 0169-1368 .- 1872-7360. ; 163
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The northern Norrbotten ore province in Sweden is one of the most mineralized areas in Europe. Iron, gold and/or copper deposits occur as iron oxide-apatite-style mineralization (IOA, Kiruna-type) as well as iron oxide-copper–gold (IOCG) style. Regardless of mineralization style, most deposits appear to be spatially controlled by a set of crustal-scale Palaeoproterozoic shear zones which share similar structural characteristics and deformation histories.Reappraisal of regional geological and geophysical data, coupled with structural mapping, suggests crustal-scale shear zones form continuous c. N-S-trending zones extending from the Skellefte district in the south into the northern Norrbotten ore province. One example from Norrbotten is a zone that extends SSW from Karesuando in the north towards Svappavaara. While this structure has traditionally been inferred to continue SW towards Arjeplog (i.e. the Karesuando – Arjeplog Deformation Zone; KADZ), we favour its deflection SSE into the Nautanen-Aitik trend, making it a continuous, IOCG-bearing, crustal-scale deformation zone. Similar shear zone geometries can be observed in analogous zones to the west. Most of these crustal scale structures record at least two time-separated deformation events of regional significance. IOA and IOCG deposits form in different tectonic environments, separated in time and overprinting each other.
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