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- Baumert, Nicolai
(författare)
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For God's Sake : The Work and Long-Term Impact of Christian Missionaries in Cameroon 1844-2018
- 2022
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have made great strides towards more accessible and higher quality schooling and medical systems in recent years. Despite this, education and health care in Africa lag behind other developing regions and large inequalities in educational levels and health care access remain across countries, subnational regions, and gender. Cameroon, in west-central Africa, with its unique history of colonial rule by three European powers is no exception as it still struggles to provide citizens with stable and inclusive education and healthcare. A growing body of literature attributes Christian missionary expansion in former African colonies since the mid-19th century with having a transformative and primarily positive impact on public goods provision. Since schools and medical facilities proved to be an effective tool for proselytization, missionary societies in Cameroon were not only the main providers of formal education but were also crucial players in the initial establishment of institutionalized health care during the colonial era. This thesis examines the interdependencies, dynamics, and long-term implications of mission work in Cameroon since their arrival and expansion from the 19th century until today. I create novel historical databases documenting the temporal and spatial extent of missionary expansion in Cameroon by drawing on newly collected and largely unexplored data from annual mission reports. I further link geocoded historical information on the scope of mission work to data on individual-level educational achievement and health care infrastructure in Cameroon today. Qualitative evidence, financial records, and staff censuses from missionary reports allow for a deeper understanding of the interdependencies of missionary work with the indigenous population during the colonial era. I find that the spatial extent of formal schooling was influenced by several geographical and spatio-historical features as well as characteristics of the local indigenous societies. In doing so, I move beyond existing research that mostly relied on inaccurate and Eurocentric historical atlases and often insufficiently accounted for the determinants of missionary locations in assessing the long-term effect of mission work on contemporary outcomes. Further, I identify a persistent and positive impact of colonial-era missionary investments in education and health care on Cameroonians’ schooling achievements, educational gender equality, and access to health care today. Potential mechanisms underlying this long-lasting impact are cultural shifts – set in motion by the work of missionaries – regarding the value of schooling and Western medicine, and the persistence of schooling and health care physical infrastructure. The magnitude of these effects differs by missionary denomination for educational outcomes, and between missionary societies and the colonial government for health care access.Finally, I highlight the crucial role of Africans in the functioning of missionary work in Cameroon before World War I. Missions relied on the local acceptance of indigenous chiefs and depended predominantly on African personnel to facilitate the rapid and cost-efficient expansion of the missionary sphere of influence. While the financial contributions of indigenous Cameroonians to the mission funds were low (yet non-negligible) relative to donations from Europe and America during German colonial rule, Africans’ willingness to accept Christianity and their demand for missionary services ultimately determined the success of missions in Cameroon.
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| 2. |
- Baumert, Nicolai, et al.
(författare)
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Global outsourcing of carbon emissions 1995–2009: A reassessment
- 2019
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Ingår i: Environmental Science and Policy. - : Elsevier BV. - 1462-9011. ; 92, s. 228-236
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Increasing global production fragmentation allows for outsourcing of emissions, which may undermine national climate policies. Researchers focusing on the gap between consumption-based and production-based emissions have concluded that developed countries are systematically outsourcing emissions to developing countries. However, asymmetries in emissions embodied in trade may emerge due to differences in carbon intensity of energy and production between different countries, and need not be evidence of outsourcing. This study investigates if previous results concerning emission in –and outsourcing of developed and developing countries hold when emission flows are adjusted for technological differences. Two striking results are demonstrated: first, the magnitude of outsourcing is significantly smaller than previous studies have suggested, and, second, there is no clear divide between developing and developed countries. Large developed Anglophone countries (US, UK, Canada and Australia) were increasingly outsourcing emissions between 1995 and 2009 by shifting toward more carbon-intensive goods in their imports and less carbon intensive goods in exports, whereas other developed countries (i.e. the Nordics, advanced Asia and even the aggregate EU-27) maintained a positive emission trade balance. Among major developing countries, China is a major insourcer of emissions, while other emerging economies show no consistent pattern (e.g. India, Turkey and Brazil) or marginal outsourcing (e.g. Indonesia and Mexico). These results contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the impact of international trade on global carbon emissions.
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| 3. |
- Baumert, Nicolai, et al.
(författare)
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Technology-adjusted carbon accounting
- 2022
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Ingår i: Handbook on Trade Policy and Climate Change. - 9781839103230 ; , s. 256-271
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We present technology-adjusted consumption-based accounting (TCBA) – a measure of shared responsibility for global greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike in conventional consumption-based accounting (CBA), countries are assigned the emission responsibility for the technology they use to produce their exports. This ensures that national emission responsibilities are not driven by differences in export production technology. If the technology for exports is less (more) carbon-intensive than world average for the relevant product group, the exporters are credited (penalized) for providing the world with these goods. By comparing the evidence on TCBA trends to conventional findings on CBA and production-based accounting (PBA) for the period 2000–2014, the map of emission responsibility is redrawn – albeit not in a way that systematically favors developed or developing countries. Lastly, we discuss how TCBA has been received in academia and among policy makers since its conceptualization.
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| 4. |
- Jakob, Michael, et al.
(författare)
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How trade policy can support the climate agenda
- 2022
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Ingår i: Science (New York, N.Y.). - : American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). - 1095-9203 .- 0036-8075. ; 376:6600, s. 1401-1404
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Economic analysis has produced ample insights on how international trade and climate policy interact. Trade presents both opportunities and obstacles, and invites the question of how domestic climate policies can be effective in a global economy integrated through international trade. Particularly problematic is the potential relocation of production to regions with low climate standards. Measures to level the playing field, such as border carbon adjustments (BCAs), may be justified for specific emissions-intensive and trade-exposed sectors but need to be well-targeted, carefully navigating tensions that can arise between the desire to respect global trade rules and the need to elaborate and implement effective national climate policies. The conformity of specific trade measures with international trade and climate change law is not entirely clear. Yet, clarity is needed to ensure that the industry actors affected will find the rules predictable and be able to adhere to them.
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| 5. |
- Nielsen, Tobias, et al.
(författare)
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The risk of carbon leakage in global climate agreements
- 2021
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Ingår i: International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1567-9764 .- 1573-1553. ; 21:2, s. 147-163
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Although climate change and international trade are interdependent, policy-makers often address the two topics separately. This may inhibit progress at the intersection of climate change and trade and could present a serious constraint for global climate action. One key risk is carbon leakage through emission outsourcing, i.e. reductions in emissions in countries with rigorous climate policies being offset by increased emissions in countries with less stringent policies. We first analyze the Paris Agreement’s nationally determined contributions (NDC) and investigate how carbon leakage is addressed. We find that the risk of carbon leakage is insufficiently accounted for in these documents. Then, we apply a novel quantitative approach (Jiborn et al., 2018; Baumert et al., 2019) to analyze trends in carbon outsourcing related to a previous international climate regime—the Kyoto Protocol—in order to assess whether reported emission reductions were offset by carbon outsourcing in the past. Our results for 2000–2014 show a more nuanced picture of carbon leakage during the Kyoto Protocol than previous studies have reported. Carbon outsourcing from developed to developing countries was dominated by the USA outsourcing to China, while the evidence for other developed countries was mixed. Against conventional wisdom, we find that, in general, countries that stayed committed to their Kyoto Protocol emission targets were either only minor carbon outsourcers or actually even insourcers—although the trend was slightly negative—indicating that binding emissions targets do not necessarily lead to carbon outsourcing. We argue that multiple carbon monitoring approaches are needed to reduce the risk of carbon leakage.
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