| 1. |
- Moritz, Juliane, et al.
(författare)
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Electron beam powder bed fusion of γ‐titanium aluminide : Effect of processing parameters on part density, surface characteristics and aluminum content
- 2021
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Ingår i: Metals. - : MDPI. - 2075-4701. ; 11:7
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Gamma titanium aluminides are very interesting for their use in high‐performance applications such as aircraft engines due to their low density, high stiffness and favorable hightemperature properties. However, the pronounced brittleness of these intermetallic alloys is a major challenge for their processing through conventional fabrication methods. Additive manufacturing by means of electron beam powder bed fusion (EB‐PBF) significantly improves the processability of titanium aluminides due to the high preheating temperatures and facilitates complex components. The objective of this study was to determine a suitable processing window for EB‐PBF of the TNM‐B1 alloy (Ti‐43.5Al‐4Nb‐1Mo‐0.1B), using an increased aluminum content in the powder raw material to compensate for evaporation losses during the process. Design of experiments was used to evaluate the effect of beam current, scan speed, focus offset, line offset and layer thickness on porosity. Top surface roughness was assessed through laser scanning confocal microscopy. Scanning electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and energydispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (EDX) were used for microstructural investigation and to analyze aluminum loss depending on the volumetric energy density used in EB‐PBF. An optimized process parameter set for achieving part densities of 99.9% and smooth top surfaces was derived. The results regarding microstructures and aluminum evaporation suggest a solidification via the β‐phase.
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| 2. |
- Brandau, Benedikt, et al.
(författare)
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Proof-of-concept of an absorbance determination of a powder bed by high resolution coaxial multispectral imaging in laser material processing
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Ingår i: Additive Manufacturing. - 2214-8604 .- 2214-7810.
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Tidskriftsartikel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Imaging techniques are very popular for process monitoring in laser material processing due to their high information content. At the same time, coaxial systems focused by passive laser optics still present a major challenge, because most laser optics cause imaging errors for the monitoring channel. In this paper, the design, methodology and procedure are shown to be able to acquire coaxial image data by standard laser components, which is demonstrated by components for a laser powder bed fusion system and their use on a powder bed. The focus is on the correction of the image data to produce a high-resolution, geometrically accurate and gap-free overview image of the entire processing area. For this purpose, optical simulations of the system are performed to detect aberrations, distortions and chromatic errors and to correct them by hardware elements or in software post-processing. Over the entire 114 mm by 114 mm working area, objects can be captured geometrically accurate with a maximum deviation of 22 μm - 49 μm, depending on the detection wavelength. By capturing images atPaper C: Coaxial multispectral imaging Benedikt Brandau148wavelengths of 405 nm, 450 nm, 520 nm, 580 nm, 625 nm and 850 nm, multispectral information is gained over the entire working area. In addition, an absorbance of the powder bed is derived from the images. To qualify this methodology, tests are performed on 20 different powders. These include different particle sizes, aged and oxidized powders of different metals. The ability to determine absorbance is simulated by ray tracing powder surfaces. This allows the determination of in-line absorbances from the powder bed with a maximum deviation of 2.5 % compared to absorbance spectra of established methods. The origins of component defects such as foreign particles, powder oxidation, spatter and uncoated areas were able to be identified down to a diameter of 20 μm.
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| 3. |
- Brandau, Benedikt
(författare)
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Spectral analysis in laser powder bed fusion
- 2022
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This thesis is about the investigation of the spectral interaction of electromagnetic radiation with metal powders. For this purpose, spectral data of powders for laser powder bed fusion processes are investigated in three papers using different techniques. In paper A the spectral radiation behavior of the laser interaction zone is considered, in paper B and C the absorbance behavior of different metal powders depending on their state and measurement method. Paper A investigates the spectral signal of the process light generated by laser material interaction in laser powder bed fusion. The detection is performed by a coaxially guided measuring beam and a quasi-coaxial measuring beam simultaneously guided by another scanning optics. The signal characteristics depend on the angle of incidence of the measuring beam to the laser material interaction zone. Using high-speed recordings and optical simulations, a model for describing the signal behavior could be determined. The measured spectral intensity distribution representing the degree for energy coupling can be corrected with a correction factor over the whole field for solid materials. This correction includes a function describing the numerical aperture of the measuring channel and the laser intensity on the working field. For the investigated powder, the measurement signal fluctuated strongly and no transferable model could be formed. The reason for this was the different absorbance behavior of the powders investigated. Paper B therefore deals in detail with the spectral absorbance behavior of metal powders for additive manufacturing. Using a high-precision spectrometer, 39 powders were measured reflectively over a wide spectral range and the absorbance determined. By varying the degree of use, aging, grain size and impurities, various influence parameters are determined experimentally and discussed theoretically. Based on 20 derived laser wavelengths, technically usable wavelengths with better process efficiency and stability are proposed. From the obtained absorbance, the efficiency of energy coupling can be estimated and form a broad data base for the optimization of laser parameters. In order to perform the absorbance determinations also in situ in a laser powder bed fusion system paper C describes a possibility of an inline absorbance determination by high resolution coaxial imaging. A method is discussed for geometrically correct and gapless imaging of the processing plane, recorded through the laser optics. By imaging at six different wavelengths, metal powders can be distinguished by their absorbance spectrum and impurities can be detected. In an experimental implementation the functionality of the method is proven. The results are validated by optical simulations, ray tracing and comparative measurements with a high-precision spectrometer.
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| 4. |
- Fedina, Tatiana
(författare)
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Towards sustainability in additive manufacturing: material and process aspects
- 2023
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The acceptance of additive manufacturing (AM) depends on the quality of final parts and process repeatability. Recently, many studies have been dedicated to the establishment of the relationship between the process behavior and material performance. Phenomena such as laser-material interaction, melt pool dynamics, ejecta formation and particle movement behavior on a powder bed are of a particular interest for the AM community as these events directly influence the outcome of the process. Another aspect, which hinders the adoption of AM, is the need for cost-efficient powder materials, their sustainable processing and recycling. The research work presented in this thesis explores scientific aspects related to the above-mentioned topics, with a particular focus on the material and process behavior phenomena in powder bed fusion-laser melting (PBF-LM) and directed energy deposition (DED) processes. Paper A shows a comparative study of dissimilarly shaped gas and water atomized low alloy steel powders regarding their processability, packing capacities, particle movement behavior and powder performance in PBF-LM. The impact of chemical composition and morphology of the powders on the process behavior was revealed. Powder spattering and melt pool instabilities were discussed in detail. Paper B contains research on the particle movement and denudation behavior on a powder bed when using near-spherical and non-spherical steel powders. The influence of particle morphology on the dynamics of arbitrary-shaped powder particles was studied by applying an analytical correlation formula to calculate the drag force exerted on powder particles of various shape. Particle entrainment of gas and water atomized powders in front of the laser beam was measured, revealing a significant difference in the powder transfer towards the melt pool.Paper C explains the role of ejecta in the recycled powder and the changing behavior of the material due to ejecta pick-up. The impact of multiple powder recycling steps on the degradation of low alloy steel powder in laser powder bed fusion was studied. Oxygen content, particle size and ejecta occurrence gradually increased after each recycling step and were identified as the main contributors to the property alterations observed in the powder during recycling. In addition, a direct correlation between the increase in oxygen and more frequent spatter ejection with repeated recycling was established. Paper D focuses on the impact of powder aging on the degradation of AlSi10Mg powder during processing in PBF-LM. The analysis of the powder properties, affected by laser exposure and the aging procedure, showed a change of chemical and morphological characteristics of the powders in virgin and aged conditions. The oxygen content in the powders appeared to have a significant effect on the powders' surface appearance and light absorbance, gradually deteriorating the processability of the powders with the increase of oxygen level. Porosity occurrence and its influence on the mechanical properties of the powders was also studied, demonstrating a rapid decrease of ultimate tensile strength and elongation from virgin condition to aged.Papers E and F investigate the possibilities of iron ore waste reduction using Al powder as a reducing agent and a laser beam as a heat source. Paper E focuses on the Fe2O3-Al interaction behavior and extent of the iron ore reduction, whereas Paper F reports on the high-speed imaging investigation possibilities of laser beam-material surface interaction when processing Fe2O3-Al powders and an Fe2O3 powder-AlSI5 wire combination in DED. In-situ observation of various melt pool phenomena and exothermic reaction behavior of the material combinations using high-speed imaging was carried out. In addition to that, the influence of feed materials and laser power on the thermite reaction time was discussed in detail, showing their dissimilar behavior.All six papers include research on laser additive manufacturing using powder feedstocks. The papers discuss various phenomena regarding powder processability, recycling and laser beam-material interaction behavior in both PBF-LM and DED. High-speed imaging was used as the main tool to observe and study the above listed topics.
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| 5. |
- Frostevarg, Jan, Teknologie doktor, 1982-, et al.
(författare)
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Influence of the vapour channel on processing in laser powder bed fusion
- 2019
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Ingår i: Procedia Manufacturing. - : Elsevier. - 2351-9789. ; 36, s. 80-87
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Additive Manufacturing provides many opportunities to design and manufacture parts that are difficult or not possible to produce with conventional methods. In Selective Laser Melting (SLM) in powder bed fusion (PBF), melt pool dynamics and stability is dependent on a large number of factors, e.g. laser power output, power density, travel speed, reflectivity of powder bed, rapid heating and vaporization. Since travel speeds are often very fast and the laser interaction zone is small, the physical events become difficult to predict but also to observe. This work aims to describe the formation and geometrical characteristics of the vaporization zone during processing. Using a combination of theoretical descriptions, resulting material structures and a comprehensive analysis of high-speed images of the processing zone for different heat inputs and travel speeds, explanations for the dynamic melt pool behaviour are derived. The melting and pressures from processing involved moves powder particles next to it, changing the conditions for neighbouring tracks due to lack of material. These findings can provide a basis for creating more efficient and stable SLM processing, with fewer imperfections.
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| 6. |
- Greifzu, Moritz, et al.
(författare)
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Laser Treatment as Sintering Process for Dispenser Printed Bismuth Telluride Based Paste
- 2019
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Ingår i: Materials. - : MDPI. - 1996-1944. ; 12:20
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Laser sintering as a thermal post treatment method for dispenser printed p- and n-type bismuth telluride based thermoelectric paste materials was investigated. A high-power fiber laser (600 W, 1064 nm) was used in combination with a scanning system to achieve high processing speed. A Design of Experiment (DoE) approach was used to identify the most relevant processing parameters. Printed layers were laser treated with different process parameters and the achieved sheet resistance, electrical conductivity, and Seebeck coefficient are compared to tube furnace processed reference specimen. For p-type material, electrical conductivity of 22 S/cm was achieved, compared to 15 S/cm in tube furnace process. For n-type material, conductivity achieved by laser process was much lower (7 S/cm) compared to 88 S/cm in furnace process. Also, Seebeck coefficient decreases during laser processing (40–70 µV/K and −110 µV/K) compared to the oven process (251 µV/K and −142 µV/K) for p- and n-type material. DoE did not yet deliver a set of optimum processing parameters, but supports doubts about the applicability of area specific laser energy density as a single parameter to optimize laser sintering process.
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| 7. |
- Gruber, Samira, et al.
(författare)
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Comparison of dimensional accuracy and tolerances of powder bed based and nozzle based additive manufacturing processes
- 2020
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Ingår i: Journal of laser applications. - : American Institute of Physics (AIP). - 1042-346X .- 1938-1387. ; 32:3
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Additive manufacturing processes have the potential to produce near-net shaped complex final parts in various industries such as aerospace, medicine, or automotive. Powder bed based and nozzle based processes like laser metal deposition (LMD), laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), and electron beam melting (EBM) are commercially available, but selecting the most suitable process for a specific application remains difficult and mainly depends on the individual know-how within a certain company. Factors such as the material used, part dimension, geometrical features, as well as tolerance requirements contribute to the overall manufacturing costs that need to be economically reasonable compared to conventional processes. Within this contribution, the quantitative analysis of basic geometrical features such as cylinders, thin walls, holes, and cooling channels of a special designed benchmark demonstrator manufactured by LMD; LPBF and EBM are presented to compare the geometrical accuracy within and between these processes to verify existing guidelines, connect the part quality to the process parameters, and demonstrate process-specific limitations. The fabricated specimens are investigated in a comprehensive manner with 3D laser scanning and CT scanning with regard to dimensional and geometrical accuracy of outer and inner features. The obtained results will be discussed and achievable as-built tolerances for assessed demonstrator parts will be classified according to general tolerance classes described [DIN ISO 2768-1,Allgemeintoleranzen-Teil 1: Toleranzen fur Langen- und Winkelmasse ohne einzelne Toleranzeintragung(1991). Accessed 26 February 2018; DIN ISO 2768-2,Allgemeintoleranzen-Teil 2: Toleranzen fur Form und Lage ohne einzelne Toleranzeintragung(1991). Accessed 26 February 2018].
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| 8. |
- Haack, M, et al.
(författare)
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Investigation on the formation of grain boundary serrations in additively manufactured superalloy Haynes 230
- 2020
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Ingår i: Journal of laser applications. - : American Institute of Physics (AIP). - 1042-346X .- 1938-1387. ; 32:3
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Solid-solution and carbide-strengthened superalloys such as Haynes 230 are the materials of choice for the hot-section components of gas turbines, e.g., combustion cans and transition ducts. Under severe thermal conditions, to which those parts are exposed, creep strength is a crucial property of the related materials during their lifetime. Recently, the introduction of serrated grain boundaries in Haynes 230 has been intensively studied [J. G. Yoon, H. W. Jeong, Y. S. Yoo, and H. U. Hong, "Influence of initial microstructure on creep deformation behaviors and fracture characteristics of Haynes 230 superalloy at 900 °C,"Mater. Charact. 101, 49-57 (2015); L. Jiang, R. Hu, H. Kou, J. Li, G. Bai, and H. Fu, "The effect of M23C6 carbides on the formation of grain boundary serrations in a wrought Ni-based superalloy,"Mater. Sci. Eng. A 536, 37-44 (2012)], and nearly a triplication of the time to creep failure at high temperature and low stress conditions has been observed [J. G. Yoon, H. W. Jeong, Y. S. Yoo, and H. U. Hong, "Influence of initial microstructure on creep deformation behaviors and fracture characteristics of Haynes 230 superalloy at 900 °C,"Mater. Charact. 101, 49-57 (2015)]. The aim of this paper is to achieve serrated grain boundaries in Haynes 230 through an appropriate thermal process chain including the intrinsic heat treatments of the laser metal deposition (LMD) process, subsequent hot isostatic pressing and suitable heat treatments. The formation of serrations is a relatively new technique for Haynes 230 (i.e., first paper in 2012), and similar alloys and thus serrations have only been introduced in conventionally cast or wrought alloys so far. Optical and scanning electron microscopies are employed in this work to investigate the created microstructures, whose grain and carbide structure is finer compared to the recently studied conventionally processed alloys. Within the LMD samples, serrations were already found on almost all of the observed grain boundaries even in the as-build condition. This result was rather unexpected, as literature reports slow-cooling to be responsible for the formation of serrations, while fast-cooling is prevalent in LMD. Some authors associated the formation of serrations to the precipitation of M23C6-carbides at the grain boundaries during slow cooling conditions [L. Jiang, R. Hu, H. Kou, J. Li, G. Bai, and H. Fu, "The effect of M23C6 carbides on the formation of grain boundary serrations in a wrought Ni-based superalloy,"Mater. Sci. Eng. A 536, 37-44 (2012)]. The lower density of carbides along grain boundaries in the as-build state, however, makes this mechanism seem unlikely. Other authors attributed the emergence of serrations to a phenomenon similar to the faceting mechanism [J. G. Yoon, H. W. Jeong, Y. S. Yoo, and H. U. Hong, "Influence of initial microstructure on creep deformation behaviors and fracture characteristics of Haynes 230 superalloy at 900 °C,"Mater. Charact. 101, 49-57 (2015)]. It can be said that no uniform theory for the emergence of grain boundary serrations exists as of now. The electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) investigations performed in this work indicated a correlation between serrated grain boundary segments, the {111}-directions of the crystal lattice, and possibly segregations along dendritic subgrain boundaries for a two-dimensional case. Serial sectioning in combination with EBSD analysis confirmed an agreement between the three-dimensional orientation of serrated grain boundary segments and the {111}-direction of adjacent grains. Hence, a mechanism different from the ones described in previous works is proposed for the formation of grain boundary serrations in the additively manufactured Haynes 230 alloy.
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| 9. |
- Hendl, Julius, et al.
(författare)
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In Situ CT Tensile Testing of an Additively Manufactured and Heat-Treated Metastable ß-Titanium Alloy (Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-3Cr)
- 2021
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Ingår i: Applied Sciences. - : MDPI. - 2076-3417. ; 11:21
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Additive manufacturing has been considered a suitable process for developing high-performance parts of medical or aerospace industries. The electron beam powder bed fusion process, EB-PBF, is a powder bed fusion process carried out in a vacuum, in which the parts are melted using a highly focused electron beam. The material class of metastable β-titanium alloys, and especially Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-3Cr, show great potential for use as small and highly complex load-bearing parts. Specimens were additively manufactured with optimised process parameters and different heat treatments used in order to create tailored mechanical properties. These heat-treated specimens were analysed with regard to their microstructure (SEM) and their mechanical strength (tensile testing). Furthermore, in situ tensile tests, using a Deben CT5000 and a YXLON ff35 industrial µ-CT, were performed and failure-critical defects were detected, analysed and monitored. Experimental results indicate that, if EB-PBF-manufactured Ti-5553 is heat-treated differently, a variety of mechanical properties are possible. Regarding their fracture mechanisms, failure-critical defects can be detected at different stages of the tensile test and defect growth behaviour can be analysed.
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| 10. |
- Hendl, Julius, et al.
(författare)
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NDE for Additive Manufacturing
- 2022. - 1
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Ingår i: Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation 4.0. - Cham : Springer. - 9783030732066 - 9783030732059 ; , s. 665-696
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- By means of additive manufacturing (AM) complex-shaped parts can be manufactured using a broad range of different materials. The latter can be supplied in the form of powder, wire, paste material, or even as foil. Various technologies are covered by the term “Additive Manufacturing,” for example, direct energy deposition (DED), laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), fused filament fabrication (FFF), or binder jetting printing (BJP). In all varieties, parts are manufactured layer by layer which results in changed material properties compared to conventional manufacturing routes, for example, mechanical properties or fatigue life. To reach a conformal material deposition without defects such as lack of fusion, delamination or cracking, an optimal process window with well-chosen parameters (e.g., beam power, spot size, scanning speed) has to be identified.For nondestructive evaluation (NDE), different approaches can be used to classify AM manufactured parts regarding their defect structure and consequentially their performance:1.Process optimization and understanding of defect formation in order to prevent defects 2.In situ measurements by a variety of integrated sensors and (IR) cameras for direct process observations 3.Post-processing NDE methods such as ultrasonic testing, X-ray, or computer tomography (CT)If the three approaches are simultaneously executed, a prediction of the effect of defects can be made for certain cases.
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