| 1. |
- Arvidsson, Rickard, 1984, et al.
(författare)
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Blood cobalt? Life cycle human health impacts of a lithium-ion battery
- 2022
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Lithium-ion batteries have become the dominating technology for rechargeable batteries. However, they are associated with several social sustainability concerns. In particular, these concerns have been expressed for lithium-ion batteries that contain cobalt in the cathode, such as nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) batteries. Cobalt has been on the European Union’s list of critical raw materials since its first appearance in 2011. While not counted among the conflict minerals, the extraction and refining of cobalt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) accounts for 70% of the global supply. Reports from this extraction include harsh working conditions, high presence of child laborers and forced evictions, particularly for the 20% share of the extraction conducted at small scale. In this work, the life-cycle health impacts of an NMC battery are quantified using the disability-adjusted life years (DALY) indicator. Health impacts from emissions are included, as well as health impacts from occupational accidents during small-scale cobalt extraction in the DRC and other processes. Two scenarios for occupational fatalities in small-scale cobalt extraction in the DRC were tested: one expert estimate at 2000 fatalities/years and one at only 65 fatalities/year based on reports in media. The results show that given 2000 fatalities/year, cobalt extraction and refining account for 18% of the total health impacts. However, the nickel in the cathode accounts for 30% and the copper used as a current collector for the anode accounts for 20%. Consequently, the results from this study show that while cobalt contributes notably to the health impacts of an NMC battery, nickel and copper are also important to consider for reducing health impacts. The main recommendations are to reduce emissions from nickel and copper extraction, to increase the share of recycled metals in lithium-ion batteries and to improve the occupational safety in small-scale cobalt extraction in the DRC.
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| 2. |
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| 3. |
- Arvidsson, Rickard, 1984, et al.
(författare)
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Implementation of the crustal scarcity indicator into life cycle assessment software
- 2020
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This report provides a detailed description of how the crustal scarcity indicator (CSI) is implemented into the life cycle assessment (LCA) software OpenLCA. The original characterization factors for the CSI, called crustal scarcity potentials (CSPs), were designed to be paired with life cycle inventory data formulated as the amount (mass) of elements extracted from the crust. However, some inventory data is not formulated in terms of mass of elements extracted. For example, data in the Ecoinvent database – the world’s largest LCA database – can also be expressed in terms of the amount of mineral extracted, the amount of rock extracted, or the amount of ore extracted. In order to implement the CSI into OpenLCA in a way that captures such nonelement flows, we construct five categories of inventory data for material flows extracted from the crust. Type A flows are flows of elements, such as lead or tin, which the original CSPs can be paired with. Type B flows are flows of minerals, such as kieserite or stibnite. Type C flows are flows of rocks and groups of minerals, such as basalt or olivine. Type D flows are ores, like copper ore. Type A flows are paired with the CSPs of the respective element types. However, for type B, C and D flows, new CSPs were calculated based on their respective content of different elements. These new CSPs can be found in Appendix A-D. In addition, type E flows are those that are too vaguely formulated in the Ecoinvent database, for example as general metal or ore, making it impossible to derive CSPs. In the concluding discussion, we show that this implementation gives the CSI a wider coverage of different inventory flows than other existing mineral resource impact assessment methods implemented in different packages for OpenLCA. The implementation might thus be considered a guidance for a more all-encompassing implementation of other mineral resource impact assessment methods as well.
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| 4. |
- Arvidsson, Rickard, 1984, et al.
(författare)
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Quantifying the life-cycle health impacts of a cobalt-containing lithium-ion battery
- 2022
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Ingår i: International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1614-7502 .- 0948-3349. ; 27, s. 1106-1118
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Purpose: Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been criticized for contributing to negative social impacts along their life cycles, especially child labor and harsh working conditions during cobalt extraction. This study focuses on human health impacts — arguably the most fundamental of all social impacts. The aim is to quantify the potential life-cycle health impacts of an LIB cell of the type nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC 811) in terms of disability-adjusted life years (DALY), as well as to identify hotspots and ways to reduce the health impacts. Methods: A cradle-to-gate attributional life-cycle assessment study is conducted with the functional unit of one LIB cell and human health as the sole endpoint considered. The studied LIB is produced in a large-scale “gigafactory” in Sweden, the cobalt sulfate for the cathode is produced in China, and the cobalt raw material is sourced from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Potential health impacts from both emissions and occupational accidents are quantified in terms of DALY, making this an impact pathway (or type II) study with regard to social impact assessment. Two scenarios for fatality rates in the artisanal cobalt mining in the DRC are considered: a high scenario at 2000 fatalities/year and a low scenario at 65 fatalities/year. Results: Applying the high fatality rate, occupational accidents in the artisanal cobalt mining in the DRC contribute notably to the total life-cycle health impacts of the LIB cell (13%). However, emissions from production of nickel sulfate (used in the cathode) and of copper foil (the anode current collector) contribute even more (30% and 20%, respectively). These contributions are sensitive to the selected time horizon of the life-cycle assessment, with longer or shorter time horizons leading to considerably increased or decreased health impacts, respectively. Conclusions: In order to reduce the health impacts of the studied LIB, it is recommended to (i) investigate the feasibility of replacing the copper foil with another material able to provide anode current collector functionality, (ii) reduce emissions from metal extraction (particularly nickel and copper), (iii) increase the recycled content of metals supplied to the LIB manufacturing, and (iv) improve the occupational standards in artisanal mining in the DRC, in particular by reducing fatal accidents.
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| 5. |
- Chordia, Mudit, 1985, et al.
(författare)
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A model platform for solving lithium-ion battery cell data gaps in life cycle assessment
- 2022
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Ingår i: EVS35.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- With the advent of electromobility, life cycle assessment studies need to keep up with growing number of cell formats and chemistries being adopted for various vehicle applications. This often hindered by lack of data. A model platform is presented, starting with a cell design computation model which is used for calculating the mass of cell components and other design parameters. It also includes a cell performance model, which will link to a battery pack and vehicle model, both used for estimate losses caused by the cell during vehicle operation. Furthermore, the platform comprises a model generating inventory data for life cycle assessment of lithium-ion battery cell production. Together, these parts feed information to life cycle assessment calculations covering both production and use of lithium-ion battery cells. The aim is to support technology development and provide an understanding of how various design changes in cells link to environmental impacts. This conference paper explains model parts and provides exemplary results.
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| 6. |
- Chordia, Mudit, 1985, et al.
(författare)
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Does the grade and source of lithium used in batteries matter?
- 2022
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Lithium-based batteries are increasingly being implemented for storing energy, both in transportation and stationary applications. As battery manufacturing matures and becomes more efficient, the environmental burdens of these batteries shift upstream, for example to the lithium supply. The majority of the current global lithium supply comes from two sources – spodumene mined in Australia and brines extracted in Chile. In this study, we review existing life cycle assessment literature on lithium production regarding data completeness and quality, as well as temporal and geographical relevance. Preliminary results indicate that the currently most used datasets in life cycle assessment studies of lithium-based batteries lack quality and representativeness of current operations. To address these gaps, this study compiles several new datasets for lithium production representing different geographies, technical processes, and lithium grades. First, we compare the inventory data of other existing lithium supply datasets, both older and newly compiled, regarding their quality and representativeness. Second, we look at future scenarios for lithium supply based on global proven reserves and analyze the influence of changing grades on future environmental impacts. Third, we examine the potential for reducing environmental impacts from the lithium-supply chain by linking all electricity inputs to renewable sources. Finally, we use the various lithium datasets compiled in this study to update the results of a giga-scale lithium-ion battery manufacturing in a recently published study. We focus on climate change and mineral resource use impacts. Additionally, to inform a growing debate in scientific literature around the water use impacts related to brine and freshwater extraction in water-stressed regions of the world, such as the salars in South America, we use regionalized water use assessment indicators to further assess the burdens of battery production from water use perspective.
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| 7. |
- Chordia, Mudit, 1985, et al.
(författare)
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Environmental life cycle implications of upscaling lithium-ion battery production
- 2021
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Ingår i: International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1614-7502 .- 0948-3349. ; 26:10, s. 2024-2039
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) literature evaluating environmental burdens from lithium-ion battery (LIB) production facilities lacks an understanding of how environmental burdens have changed over time due to a transition to large-scale production. The purpose of this study is hence to examine the effect of upscaling LIB production using unique life cycle inventory data representative of large-scale production. A sub-goal of the study is to examine how changes in background datasets affect environmental impacts. Method We remodel an often-cited study on small-scale battery production by Ellingsen et al. (2014), representative of operations in 2010, and couple it to updated Ecoinvent background data. Additionally, we use new inventory data to model LIB cell production in a large-scale facility representative of the latest technology in LIB production. The cell manufactured in the small-scale facility is an NMC-1:1:1 (nickel-manganese-cobalt) pouch cell, whereas in the large-scale facility, the cell produced in an NMC-8:1:1 cylindrical cell. We model production in varying carbon intensity scenarios using recycled and exclusively primary materials as input options. We assess environmental pollution–related impacts using ReCiPe midpoint indicators and resource use impacts using the surplus ore method (ReCiPe) and the crustal scarcity indicator. Results and discussion Remodelling of the small-scale factory using updated background data showed a 34% increase in greenhouse gas emissions — linked to updated cobalt sulfate production data. Upscaling production reduced emissions by nearly 45% in the reference scenario (South Korean energy mix) due to a reduced energy demand in cell production. However, the emissions reduce by a further 55% if the energy is sourced from a low-carbon intensity source (Swedish energy mix), shifting almost all burden to upstream supply chain. Regional pollution impacts such as acidification and eutrophication show similar trends. Toxic emissions also reduce, but unlike other impacts, they were already occurring during mining and ore processing. Lastly, nickel, cobalt, and lithium use contribute considerably to resource impacts. From a long-term perspective, copper becomes important from a resource scarcity perspective. Conclusions Upscaling LIB production shifts environmental burdens to upstream material extraction and production, irrespective of the carbon intensity of the energy source. Thus, a key message for the industry and policy makers is that further reductions in the climate impacts from LIB production are possible, only when the upstream LIB supply chain uses renewable energy source. An additional message to LCA practitioners is to examine the effect of changing background systems when evaluating maturing technologies.
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| 8. |
- Chordia, Mudit, 1985, et al.
(författare)
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Life cycle environmental impacts of current and future battery-grade lithium supply from brine and spodumene
- 2022
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Ingår i: Resources, Conservation and Recycling. - : Elsevier BV. - 0921-3449 .- 1879-0658. ; 187
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- Life cycle assessment studies of large-scale lithium-ion battery (LIB) production reveal a shift-of-burden to the upstream phase of cell production. Thus, it is important to understand how environmental impacts differ based on the source and grade of extracted metals. As lithium is highly relevant to several current and next-generation cell chemistries, we reviewed the effect of varying grades in different sources of lithium (brine and spodumene) worldwide. The review covered the Ecoinvent database, scientific literature, and technical reports of several upcoming production facilities. The results showed that lower-grade lithium brines have higher environmental impacts compared to higher-grade brines. However, spodumene-based production did not show such a trend, due to different technical process designs of the facilities reviewed. Water use impacts are higher in lower-grade sources and are expected to increase with decreasing lithium concentration. This could specifically be an issue in brine-based production, where brine is extracted from already water scarce regions and evaporated, thus increasing the risk of freshwater availability. However, these aspects of water use are not addressed in existing life cycle impact assessment methods. In the context of large-scale LIB cell production, the reviewed lithium hydroxide production routes account for 5–15% of the climate change impacts.
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| 9. |
- Chordia, Mudit, 1985
(författare)
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Taking stock of large-scale lithium-ion battery production using life cycle assessment
- 2022
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Battery electric vehicles are being increasingly favored as an alternative to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). This is mainly due to their lower environmental impact when compared to ICEVs over the vehicle’s lifetime. Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies focusing specifically on battery electric vehicles (BEVs) have identified battery cell production as an environmental hotspot in the BEV’s life cycle. However, lack of primary or industrial data, different technical scopes, and varying data quality, limit a thorough understanding of the environmental impacts of cell production. Further, with scaling-up of battery production (to meet the rising demand for BEVs), the source and level of impacts are expected to change. In response, the main aim of this thesis is to explore and understand the implications of upscaling in battery production. An example of such a change is provided at the mining sites where raw materials for lithium used in batteries are extracted and produced. As mining continues, over time, the ore grades at these sites decline. Thus, this thesis also aims to investigate the effect of declining ore grades on the overall impacts from cell production. A sub-goal is to understand the relevance of background data in LCA studies and its effect on overall results. The technical scope of this thesis is the production of a graphite-NMC:811 21700 type cylindrical cell. To assess the environmental impacts of upscaling, production in a small-scale facility is compared to production in a large-scale facility. Next, the impact of declining ore grades on overall cell production is estimated by analyzing the data from multiple mining sites for lithium, with varying ore grades and different types of sources – spodumene and brine. To assess the effect of background database on overall results, the LCA model for cell production was coupled with different versions of the Ecoinvent background database. Lastly, a physics-based model platform, developed in cross-disciplinary collaboration, is proposed with the objective of filling data gaps in LCA of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The model platform will help link the cell design aspects such as power or energy optimization to changes in the individual cell production processes. Further, the model platform will help expand the technical scope to broadened set of cell geometries and chemistries, and increase the precision in use phase modeling as well. The results show that the upscaling leads to a reduction in environmental impacts from cell production. This is due to higher energy and material efficiency of cell production at large scale. Further, when low-carbon intensive sources are used, then the impacts from cell production shift almost entirely to the raw material extraction and production phase. In the context of declining ore grades, the type of source and grade of lithium account for 5-15% of the global warming impacts from cell production. This implies that future environmental impacts from LIB production could increase, due to increased chemical and energy inputs, in response to declining ore grades at mining sites. The changes in the background data have a significant bearing on the overall results. These are due to evolving technical systems and an improved representation of these systems in terms of data quality and geo-spatial representativeness. Lastly, preliminary results from the physics-based model platform show that accounting for variations in cell design can further add variability in results.
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| 10. |
- Chordia, Mudit, 1985, et al.
(författare)
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Upscaling lithium-ion battery production
- 2021
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This study assesses environmental life cycle implications of upscaling lithium-ion battery (LIB) production andfound that upscaling results in shift-of burdens to the material extraction and production phase. This is due to the energy and material efficiency of production, typically seen in large-scale production facilities.
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