| 1. |
- Akpalu, Wisdom, 1968, et al.
(författare)
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Bio-economics of Conservation Agriculture and Soil Carbon Sequestration in Developing Countries
- 2010
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Improvement in soil carbon through conservation agriculture in developing countries may generate some private benefits to farmers as well as sequester carbon emissions, which is a positive externality to society. Leaving crop residue on the farm has become an important option in conservation agriculture practice. However, in developing countries, using crop residue for conservation agriculture has the opportunity cost of say feed for livestock. In this paper, we model and develop an expression for an optimum economic incentive that is necessary to internalize the positive externality. A crude value of the tax is calculated using data from Kenya. We also empirically investigated the determinants of the crop residue left on the farm and found that it depends on cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil, the prices of maize, whether extension officers visit the plot or not, household size, the level of education of the household head and alternative cost of soil conservation.
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| 2. |
- Axelsson, Anna, et al.
(författare)
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Policy SEA: lessons from development co-operation
- 2012
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Ingår i: Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1461-5517 .- 1471-5465. ; 30:2, s. 124-129
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This professional practice report reflects upon lessons learned from piloting and evaluating an innovative approach to policy strategic environmental assessment (SEA) in developing countries. The primary analytical focuses of the approach are institutions and governance characteristics, plus it places strong emphasis on learning. The piloting provides valuable insights about the conduct of SEA at the policy level and in socio-political where there is limited experience with SEA. From our observations we reflect upon the importance of appropriate ownership of an SEA; the practical implications of working in contested political environments; the challenges in using SEA as a tool to promote good governance; and the centrality of a long-term perspective to environmental and social mainstreaming.
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| 3. |
- Ekbom, Anders, 1963
(författare)
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Determinants of Soil Capital
- 2009
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This paper combines knowledge from soil science and economics to estimate economic determinants of soil capital. Explaining soil capital facilitates a better understanding of constraints and opportunities for increased agricultural production and reduced land degradation. The study builds on an unusually rich data set that combines data on soil capital (represented by chemical and physical properties) and economic data on household characteristics, labour supply, crop allocation and conservation investments. The study yields both methodological and policy-relevant results. On methodology, the analysis shows that soil capital is heterogeneous with soil properties widely distributed across the farms. Likewise, farmers? investment decisions and soil management vary widely across farms. Hence simplifications of soil capital, which are common in the economics literature, may have limited validity. On the other hand, soil science research limited to soils? biological, physical and chemical characteristics fail to recognize that soil is capital owned and managed by farmers. They thus run the risk of omitting important socio-economic determinants of soil capital. They also exclude the possibility to explain some of the dynamics that are determined by its stock character. On policy, the study shows that farmers? soil conservation investments, allocation of labour, manure and fertilizer input, and crop choice indeed do determine variation in farmers? soil capital. Particularly strong positive effects on key soil nutrients (N,P,K) are observed for certain conservation technologies. Extension advice shows unexpectedly no significant effects on soil capital. The wide distribution of soil properties across farms reinforces the need to (i) tailor technical extension advice to the specific circumstances in each farm, and (ii) enhance the integration of farmers? knowledge and experiences, expert judgment and scientific soil analysis at the farm level.
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| 4. |
- Ekbom, Anders, 1963
(författare)
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Economic Analysis of Soil Capital, Land Use and Agricultural Production in Kenya
- 2007
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The purpose of this thesis is to investigate economic and natural science aspects of soil management and agricultural production in a developing country context. It does so by theoretical as well as empirical investigation, based on data from field surveys in Kenya’s central highlands over several years. The rationale for the thesis is the need to increase our understanding of the economics of soil capital, land use and agricultural production in order to design policies promoting sustainable development. The thesis includes papers on: optimal soil use with downstream externalities (Ch. 2); determinants of soil capital and agricultural production (Ch. 3; 4); links between farmers’ resource levels, soil properties and agricultural productivity (Ch. 5); and land use-change and determinants of rural-urban migration in Kenya (Ch. 6). Chapter 2 shows that farmers may need incentives (taxes, subsidies or charges) to induce them to reduce soil erosion and thereby downstream damages. Furthermore we find other factors (low discount rate, tenure security, access to credits, crop insurance) that promote accumulation of soil capital and reduce soil loss and nutrient leakage. Regression analyses in Chapter 3 show that farmers’ soil capital is not a given or fixed factor but depends on soil conservation investments, and the allocation of labour, crops, manure and fertilizer in agricultural production. The wide distribution of soil properties across farms indicates the need to tailor technical extension advice to farmers’ preferences and the farm-specific economic and agro-ecological circumstances, and enhance the use of integrated soil analysis, field assessment and detailed soil mapping at farm level. Regressions in Chapter 4 show that agricultural output is determined not only by farmers’ input of land, labour, manure and fertilizer, but also by the quality of soil conservation investments and farm-specific soil properties. Hence, integrating economics and soil science is highly worthwhile in this research area. Omitting soil capital measures can cause omitted variables bias since farmers’ choice of inputs depend both on the quality and status of the soil capital and on other economic conditions (e.g. availability and cost of labour, fertilizers and other inputs). Chapter 5 shows that: relatively richer farmers have higher crop yields; poorer farmers have lower soil nutrient levels; farms with gentle slope and high resource level have the highest land management rating. These results indicate that actions aimed at promoting higher yields and sustainable agriculture will have to differ depending on farmers’ endowment, and that agricultural policy advice needs to be adapted to farmers’ resource levels. Chapter 6 shows that farmers have changed their farming system considerably during the last 40 years: introduced new (cash) crops, increased tree cover, reduced terracing, diversified crops and income sources, and increased market orientation and temporary work in cities. The study emphasizes the need to improve extension advice, rural roads, supply of inputs, local ownership of public soil conservation investment programs, access to credits and output markets, and job opportunities for farmers during agricultural off-season e.g. work in local food processing industries.
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| 5. |
- Ekbom, Anders, 1963, et al.
(författare)
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Integrating Soil Science into Agricultural Production Frontiers
- 2012
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This paper integrates soil science variables into an economic analysis of agricultural output among small-scale farmers in Kenya’s highlands. The integration is valuable because farmers’ choice of inputs depends on both the status of the soil and socio-economic conditions. The study uses a stochastic production frontier in which the individual farm’s distance to the frontier depends systematically on individual factors. We show the importance of including key soil properties and find that phosphorus has a negative output elasticity, suggesting that farms may be using the wrong fertilizer mix. Hence, the central policy implication is that while fertilizers are generally beneficial, their application needs to be based on better soil information. This highlights the importance of strengthening agricultural extension, increased access to markets, and more diversified supply of production inputs.
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| 6. |
- Ekbom, Anders, 1963, et al.
(författare)
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Integrating soil science into agricultural production frontiers
- 2013
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Ingår i: Environment and Development Economics. - : Cambridge University Press (CUP). - 1355-770X .- 1469-4395. ; 18, s. 291-308
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper integrates soil science variables into an economic analysis of agricultural output among small-scale farmers in Kenya's highlands. The integration is valuable because farmers' choice of inputs depends on both the status of the soil and socioeconomic conditions. The study uses a stochastic production frontier in which the individual farm's distance to the frontier depends systematically on individual factors. We show the importance of including key soil properties and find that phosphorus has a negative output elasticity, suggesting that farms may be using the wrong fertilizer mix. Hence, the central policy implication is that while fertilizers are generally beneficial, their application needs to be based on better soil information. This highlights the importance of strengthening agricultural extension, increased access to markets and more diversified supply of production inputs.
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| 7. |
- Ekbom, Anders, 1963, et al.
(författare)
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Is sustainable development based on agriculture attainable in Kenya? : A multidisciplinary approach
- 2001
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Ingår i: Land degradation and development. - 1085-3278. ; 12:5, s. 435-447
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Kenya's development seems trapped in a vicious circle caused by soil erosion, declining soil fertility, land fragmentation, fluctuating agricultural production, widespread poverty, corruption, ethnic tension, rapid population, urban growth and a declining economy. The development challenge is to reverse the negative effects of these processes and promote sustainable development. This paper, based on multidisciplinary work discusses whether sustainable development based on agriculture is attainable in Murang'a district in Kenya's Central Highlands. Firstly, it investigates some biophysical aspects of sustainable agriculture such as land use across time, soil nutrient status and yield, cultivated crops and soil productivity by analysing aerial photographs and soil samples and conducting interviews. It suggests that the area has gone through major biophysical changes. Second, it relates the farmers' attitude to promotion of sustainable development as carried out by the National Soil and Water Conservation Programme. It suggests that farmers carry ideas of corruption, often following ethnic lines that hampers efficient implementation of the extension advise. Finally, it identifies links behind rural-urban migration by estimating households' probability of generating incomes outside the farm, typically in urban areas. Opportunistic farming, manifested by temporary reduction of farming on own land to satisfy immediate income needs, is very common among farmers. More needs to be done to promote agro-based, small-scale rural industries, improve agricultural management practices, facilitate appropriate credits, enhance marketing opportunities, ensure timely crop payments, and increase participation in decision making. It is important to realize that for farmers to embrace policies which promote agriculturely-based sustainable development the policies ought to biophysically possible, socio-politically acceptable and economically feasible.
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| 8. |
- Ekbom, Anders, 1963, et al.
(författare)
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Muddy waters : economic analysis of soil erosion and downstream externalities
- 2018
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Ingår i: Ghanaian Journal of Economics. - 2309-8945. ; 6:1, s. 74-107
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Soil erosion and fertilizer leakage cause serious externalities in downstream environments throughout the world. Social costs are estimated to be very large and include, e.g., loss of health, reduced productivity due to pollution and eutrophication of freshwater resources, and degradation of aquatic and marine resources. The key optimal control models on soil capital management omit downstream externalities. Based on comparative statics analysis of our model, which includes downstream externalities, combined with an extended discussion on policy instruments, we conclude that governments should try to provide incentives to farmers, not primarily to stop soil and nutrient loss per se (since the farmers will look after their own soil capital) but to prevent negative externalities on downstream users, who have few opportunities to negotiate with the upstream farmers, who may even be unaware of the problems they cause.
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| 9. |
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| 10. |
- Ekbom, Anders, 1963, et al.
(författare)
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Muddy Waters: Soil Erosion and Downstream Externalities
- 2009
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Soil erosion and fertilizer run-off cause serious flow externalities in downstream environments through-out the world. Social costs include e.g. loss of health, life and production due to pollution and eutrophication of freshwater resources, reduced life of hydro-power plants, increased turbidity, and degradation of coral reefs and marine resources. The key optimal control models on soil capital management omit downstream externalities and assume that the individual farmer and society share the same objective function. In the presence of externalities, there is a discrepancy. In this paper the social planner aims at maximizing the profits from agriculture subject to a soil dynamics-constraint and external damage costs caused by downstream contamination from soil and fertilizer leakage. These effects are not considered by the farmer. Comparative statics analysis shows that factors which promote a low discount rate (tenure security, access to credits, crop insurance etc.) will reduce soil erosion and nutrient leakage and promote accumulation of soil capital. Socially optimal subsidies for soil conservation not only will build-up soil capital and increase on-site crop production, but will also reduce nutrient leakage and soil loss. A charge on fertilizer would reduce fertilizer use and thus reduce the water pollution caused by leakage of inorganic nutrients. Based on our model results, combined with an extended discussion on policy instruments, we conclude that the government should try to provide incentives, not necessarily to stop soil loss per se (since the farmers will look after their own capital) but to avoid contamination of downstream environments, where the resource users have few opportunities to negotiate with the upstream farmers, who may even be unaware of the problems they cause.
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