| 1. |
- Bergman, Anders, et al.
(författare)
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Characterization of a fast step generator
- 2017
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Lighting impulse measurements are made as a matter of routine in high voltage testing of high-voltage electrical equipment. The test is often decisive for acceptance of the equipment under test, and consequently proper and precise calibration of the measuring system is needed. The present work centres on the need to quantify the errors of reference measuring systems for lightning impulse. Scale factor determination at low frequency (or DC) is the starting point for this determination. The extrapolation from this frequency domain to the domain where microsecond pulses must be faithfully captured requires application either of methods in the frequency domain or in the time domain. Radio frequency measurements are only well defined for coaxial structures and at impedances in the range of 50 O or thereabouts, making them difficult to apply to the large structures of high-voltage measuring systems. The converse method in the time domain is to apply a Dirac impulse to the system and calculate the response to an assumed input signal by convolution. A true Dirac pulse is not readily available and in practice the applied pulse is a step voltage, which is then derived with respect to time and convolved with the applied signal to obtain the response of the measuring system. The step generator used for this purpose should have very fast front without oscillations. The intent is to achieve a close approximation of an ideal step function, which when derived with respect to time, yields the impulse response of a tested system. A necessary prerequisite is that the step is much steeper than the lightning impulse, and is flat after the step on times much longer than the impulse. The ideal switch element in such a step generator should have infinite resistance and zero capacitance in the off-state, very fast switching to on-state and very low resistance in on-state. The mercury wetted reed switch has often been used for this purpose since it has good characteristics in all these respects. Few, if any, electronic components exhibit competitive advantages compared to the reed switch. The relative lack of parasitic effects means that it is close to being an ideal device. Based on earlier experiences by the authors, a new design has been developed with focus on electrical screening and coaxial design in order to realise a step generator that works into a high impedance instrument. Considerable work has been performed to characterise the new device with regard to steepness of step and most importantly, to voltage stability after the step. The most demanding part of this work has been to separate the performance of the switch from that of the oscilloscope. Findings indicate that the step rise-time is less than 0.5 ns, and settling to within 0.5 % within 10 ns.
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| 2. |
- Bergman, Anders, et al.
(författare)
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Design of a wideband HVDC reference divider
- 2012
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Ingår i: Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements, CPEM 2012. - : IEEE. ; , s. 207-208
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)
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| 3. |
- Bergman, Anders, et al.
(författare)
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Evaluation of step response of transient recorders for lightning impulse
- 2017
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- High voltage equipment will be subjected to several types of electrical stress during operation. A battery of factory tests is defined to ensure that the equipment will perform satisfactorily in service. One of the crucial tests is to apply a simulated lighting impulse as standardised to a double-exponential impulse with at front time of 1.2 µs (± 30 %) and a time to half value of 50 µs (± 20 %). Although this wave-shape only approximates natural lightning, there is a solid body of experience within industry, proving that reliability of equipment in service is adequately proven by the standard waveform. It is however crucial for consistency of results that the both voltage level and wave-shape are correctly measured. This paper discusses the requirements and performance of the recording instruments used, leaving the properties of high voltage impulse dividers outside the discussion. The requirements for the recording instrument – transient recorder – are given in IEC 61083-1. The standard provides requirements for, and/or tests to verify, that the recorder has moderately fast response, fast settling time, high resolution, linearity under dynamic conditions, high accuracy and reasonably low internal noise. This is partly in contrast to major trends in transient recorder development, where fast sampling and fast step response are prioritized ahead of high accuracy and fast settling without creeping response. We have therefore evaluated several commercially available recorders in order to find one with respectively flat and reasonably fast step response. In this campaign, a proprietary step generator based on the use of a mercury reed relay has been used. Evaluation of this device is submitted to ISH 2017. It has been found that the measured flatness of the step response directly after the step is a good first indicator of the performance of the transient recorder. This is identified in IEC 61083-1 clauses 1.5.2 and 1.5.3, as a requirement on stability of the recorded step from 0.5 T1min to T2max. For lightning impulse this means from 0.42 µs to 60 µs. For approved transient recorders the requirement is to be within 1 %. For reference transient recorders, a limit of not more than 0.5 % should be applied. Further proof of the accuracy of the transient recorder can be achieved by convolution of an ideal waveform with the recorded step response and analysing the resulting curve with lightning impulse parameter software. A third possibility is to make direct calibration of the transient recorder, using a calculable impulse calibrator. Several state-of-art transient recorders have been evaluated and the results show that only a few are suited for measurement of lightning impulse. Also, the variation of the performance between the ranges and channels of one instruments are significantly large. Both direct assessment of step response as well as result of convolution with a theoretical 0.84/50 µs impulse will be reported. The agreement with results obtained with a calculable impulse calibrator will be illustrated.
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| 4. |
- Bergman, Anders, et al.
(författare)
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Influence of coaxial cable on response of high-voltage resisitive dividers
- 2017
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- An effort is pursued by several European National Measurement Institutes to lower the uncertainties in calibration of UHV measuring systems for lightning impulse. To this end, several reference dividers are investigated as regards their accuracy both for amplitude and for time parameters. During these investigations a deterioration of step response was identified when longer coaxial cables were inserted in the measuring circuit. The measured front time T1 was also affected, in one observed case by 2.5 % elongation of front time as another 25 m cable was inserted. Compared to the intention to calibrate front time measurement to better than 5 % uncertainty for front time, this contribution must be well known, or preferably be eliminated. This paper presents the experimental findings from these investigations. The investigated cables included selected coaxial, tri-axial, and cables with a corrugated screen. The effect of cable length was also studied. The influence was first discovered when applying a very fast step (rise-time < 4 ns) to the high voltage arm of a resistive divider and convolution of this step with the time derivative of an ideal lightning impulse with 0.84/60 µs impulse. The calculated output was analysed with IEC 61083 compliant software to evaluate the front time. Subsequently, these analyses have been augmented by additional comparative measurements where two reference dividers were connected to the same impulse generator, and varying the cable length of one of them. The summarized changes in front time calculated for different combinations of cable and impulse voltage dividers are shown and discussed. It is noted that a change in T1 error depends both on length of cable and its type. The results show that non-negligible front time errors may be introduced when the cable length is increased. To support these findings, further tests have been carried out with two reference impulse dividers connected in standard calibration configuration in accordance with IEC 60060-2. One divider was used as reference, while the cable for the other was varied. In this way, the change of error between configurations could be measured. A theoretical study has also been performed, calculating the distortion of a lightning impulse on a coaxial cable. The results agree qualitatively with experiments, but the detailed results show discrepancies that need further investigation.
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| 5. |
- Bergman, Anders, et al.
(författare)
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Traceable measurement of dielectric dissipation factor at Very Low Frequency
- 2013
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Very Low Frequency (VLF) tests are often used for after-laying tests of power cables since the reactive power demand is much lower at VLF than at 50 Hz. In order to augment the usefulness of the test, it is often complemented by a measurement of dielectric dissipation factor (tan ), where the acceptance of the tested object is based on this measurement. A traceability chain for dissipation factor at high voltage and very low frequency has as yet not been recognized by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), which results in difficulties to prove the quality of the measurement. The measurement is complicated by the limited range of the current in the test object that can be resolved by available high voltage test equipment, thus limiting the possible choices of reference systems. A novel reference measuring system that can fulfil these needs has been developed at SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden in the capacity as National Measurement Institute. The traceability of the system to National Standards of Measurement is ensured by careful scientific work and analyses. This measuring system has the ability to measure dissipation factor at 0.1 Hz in the voltage range from 0.5 kV up to 50 kV with an uncertainty better than 0.004 %.
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| 6. |
- Elg, Alf Peter, et al.
(författare)
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Characterization of dielectric properties of insulating materials for use in an HVDC reference divider
- 2012
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Ingår i: CPEM Digest (Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements). - 9781467304399 ; , s. 80-81
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Dielectric properties of polyethylene (PE), polyoxymethylene (POM) and ceramic glass (MACOR) are compared. Their suitability to act as a support for a resistor chain in a wideband HVDC reference divider is characterized. The support material forms a parallel capacitance to the resistive resistor chain, and a bandwidth of more than 100 kHz is needed. The frequency dependence of dielectric constant has been measured in the range 20 - 100 kHz. The depolarization current of these materials was measured to be at least 6 orders of magnitude lower than the current through the resistive chain. Neither MACOR nor PE does build up space charge which POM does. Possessing the highest dielectric constant makes MACOR well suited for the application.
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| 7. |
- Elg, Alf Peter
(författare)
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Qualifying a Transient Recorder for Traceable Measurements of Very Fast Transients
- 2018
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Ingår i: CPEM 2018 - Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements. - 9781538609736
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper presents the qualification of a transient recorder used in a system for traceable measurements of Very Fast Transients. The system is designed for traceable measurements of VFT up to 100 kV, having a target settling time < 10 ns, a peak voltage error < 1\%, and a front time error < 5\%. The rise time of the digitizer is 1.6 ns at 50Ω and 1.2 ns at 1 MΩ. Step responses show settling times of 4.5 ns. A convolution method gives a peak voltage error of 0.12% and a front time error of 4.1% for 4.5ns front times. © 2018 IEEE.
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| 8. |
- Elg, Alf Peter, et al.
(författare)
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Research project EMPIR 19ENG02 future energy
- 2020
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Ingår i: VDE High Voltage Technology 2020. - : VDE Verlag GmbH. - 9783800753550 ; , s. 252-257
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Society's increasing demand for electrical energy, along with the increased integration of remote renewable generation has driven transmission levels to ever higher voltages in order to maintain (or improve) grid efficiency. Consequently, high voltage testing and monitoring beyond voltage levels covered by presently available metrology infrastructures are needed to secure availability and quality of supply. Calibration services for Ultra-High Voltage Direct Current (UHVDC) presently are only available up to 1000 kV. There is a need to extend the DC calibration capabilities for voltage instrument transformers up to 1200 kV and for factory component testing capabilities up to 2000 kV. Also, methods for linear extension of lightning impulse calibration, for dielectric testing of UHV grid equipment, urgently need revision. Recent research has raised questions regarding the validity of the current linearity extension methods for voltages beyond 2500 kV. Furthermore, new methods for calibration are needed for the 0.2 class HVAC voltage instrument transformers for system voltages up to 1200 kV. The current methods used for determination of the voltage dependence are very time consuming, raising the need for methods allowing faster assessment. Finally, with new HVDC transmission grids and associated components, novel methods are needed for detection, classification and localisation of partial discharge (PD) under DC stress. The industry needs methods for reliable monitoring of critical components such as cables, for both HVAC and HVDC, and gas insulated substations (GIS), and techniques for addressing new challenges introduced by HVDC technologies, such as the ability to distinguish PD signals from switching transients in converters and other sources of noise.
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| 9. |
- Elg, Alf Peter, et al.
(författare)
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Traceability and characterization of a 1000 kV HVDC reference divider
- 2014
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Ingår i: CPEM Digest (Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements). - 9781479952052 ; , s. 780-781
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper presents the characterization of a resistive HVDC reference divider and methods to establish a traceability. The divider is designed for use as a laboratory reference for calibration of HVDC measuring systems up to 1000 kV. Targeting a measurement uncertainty of 20 ppm at full voltage has put a focus on the temperature coefficients of the resistors, elimination of humidity dependence and control of leakage currents in the high voltage arm.
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| 10. |
- Elg, Alf Peter, et al.
(författare)
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Traceability and Characterization of a 1000 kV HVDC Reference Divider
- 2015
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Ingår i: IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement. - 0018-9456 .- 1557-9662. ; 64:6, s. 1709-1715
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper presents the characterization of a resistive high-voltage dc (HVDC) reference divider and methods to establish traceability. The divider is designed for use as a laboratory reference for calibration of HVDC measuring systems up to 1000 kV. Targeting a measurement uncertainty of 20 μV/V at full voltage has put a focus on the temperature coefficients of the resistors, elimination of humidity dependence, and control of leakage currents in the high-voltage arm. A scale factor calibration against a 50 kV divider at 10 kV leads to an expanded uncertainty of 15 μV/V.
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