| 1. |
- An, S., et al.
(författare)
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Characterization of micro pore optics for full-field X-ray fluorescence imaging
- 2023
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Ingår i: Journal of Instrumentation. - 1748-0221. ; 18:1
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Elemental mapping images can be achieved through step scanning imaging using pinhole optics or micro pore optics (MPO), or alternatively by full-field X-ray fluorescence imaging (FF-XRF). X-ray optics for FF-XRF can be manufactured with different micro-channel geometries such as square, hexagonal or circular channels. Each optic geometry creates different imaging artefacts. Square-channel MPOs generate a high intensity central spot due to two reflections via orthogonal channel walls inside a single channel, which is the desirable part for image formation, and two perpendicular lines forming a cross due to reflections in one plane only. Thus, we have studied the performance of a square-channel MPO in an FF-XRF imaging system. The setup consists of a commercially available MPO provided by Photonis and a Timepix3 readout chip with a silicon detector. Imaging of fluorescence from small metal particles has been used to obtain the point spread function (PSF) characteristics. The transmission through MPO channels and variation of the critical reflection angle are characterized by measurements of fluorescence from copper and titanium metal fragments. Since the critical angle of reflection is energy dependent, the cross-arm artefacts will affect the resolution differently for different fluorescence energies. It is possible to identify metal fragments due to the form of the PSF function. The PSF function can be further characterized using a Fourier transform to suppress diffuse background signals in the image.
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| 2. |
- An, Siwen, et al.
(författare)
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Full-field X-ray fluorescence imaging with a straight polycapillary X-ray collimator
- 2020
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Ingår i: Journal of Instrumentation. - 1748-0221. ; 15:12
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Due to the availability of X-ray imaging detectors, full-field X-ray fluorescence (FF-XRF) imaging technique has become achievable, which provides an alternative to scanning X-ray fluorescence imaging with a micro-focus X-ray beamline. In this paper, we present a setup based on straight capillary optics and an energy-dispersive hybrid pixel detector, which can perform simultaneous mapping of several chemical elements. The photon transmission efficiency and spatial resolution are compared between two X-ray collimation setups: one using pinhole optics and one using straight polycapillary optics. There is a tradeoff between the spatial resolution and transmission efficiency when considering X-ray optics. When optimizing the spatial resolution, using straight capillary optics achieved a higher intensity gain when comparing with the pinhole setup. Characterization of the polycapillary imaging setup is performed through analyzing various samples in order to investigate the spatial frequency response and the energy sensitivity. This developed setup is capable of FF-XRF imaging in characteristic energies below 20 keV, while for higher energies the spatial resolution is affected by photon transmission through the collimator. This work shows the potential of the FF-XRF instrument in the monitoring of toxic metal distributions in environmental mapping measurements.
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| 3. |
- An, Siwen, et al.
(författare)
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Geometrical influence on Hg determination in wet sediment using K-shell fluorescence analysis
- 2023
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Ingår i: X-Ray Spectrometry. - : John Wiley and Sons Ltd. - 0049-8246 .- 1097-4539. ; 52:4, s. 82-196
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- To quickly identify maritime sites polluted by heavy metal contaminants, reductions in the size of instrumentation have made it possible to bring an X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyzer into the field and in direct contact with various samples. The choice of source-sample-detector geometry plays an important role in minimizing the Compton scattering noise and achieving a better signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in XRF measurement conditions, especially for analysis of wet sediments. This paper presents the influence of geometrical factors on a prototype, designed for in situ XRF analysis of mercury (Hg) in wet sediments using a 57Co excitation source and an X-ray spectrometer. The unique XRF penetrometer prototype has been constructed and tested for maritime wet sediment. The influence on detection efficiency and SNR of various geometrical arrangements have been investigated using the combination of Monte Carlo simulations and laboratory experiments. Instrument calibration was performed for Hg analysis by means of prepared wet sediments with the XRF prototype. The presented results show that it is possible to detect Hg by K-shell emission, thus enabling XRF analysis for underwater sediments. Consequently, the XRF prototype has the potential to be applied as an environmental screening tool for analysis of polluted sediments with relatively high concentrations (e.g., >2880 ppm for Hg), which would benefit in situ monitoring of maritime pollution caused by heavy metals. © 2022 The Authors
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| 4. |
- An, Siwen
(författare)
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Spectroscopic and Microscopic X-ray Fluorescence Analysis for Environmental and Industrial Applications
- 2022
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Heavy metals are well-known environmental pollutants due to its potential impact on associated ecosystems and human health. Thus, it is important to monitor the levels of heavy metals in the environment. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis is a powerful and effective screening tool in measuring the concentration of multi-elements simultaneously.This thesis provides insight into development and implementation of XRF instruments for environmental monitoring and industrial process control. The XRF method was compared with a commercial scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) for fly ash samples. Qualitative analysis and semi-quantitative analysis of Na, S, Cl, K and Cd in incineration fly ash were performed with these two similar techniques. One of the challenges of using XRF is the scattering background noise from the primary beam, which decreases the detection limit and the sensitivity of the measurement system. Hence, an X-ray beam filter was chosen to suppress the background noise for a specific element, Cr, in leachate. Numerical simulations and experiments were developed to find the proper filter material and thickness by calculating the X-ray fluorescence intensities and the signal-to-noise ratio. The developed system is capable of online monitoring of Cr levels, to certify that the concentration is below the threshold level in leachate. An XRF prototype was built and calibrated for underwater Hg analysis in maritime wet sediment using a radioisotope source. The presented results show that it is possible to detect Hg by K-shell emission thus enabling XRF analysis for sediment underwater.For non-homogeneous samples, an image revealing the elemental distribution can be achieved by micro-XRF (µ-XRF). XRF mapping of element distributions on a microscopic level was obtained by using scanning XRF microscopy and full-field XRF projection microscopy (FF-XRF). The spatial resolution of the scanning XRF imaging setup using an X-ray tube is in the order of 100 µm, but need to be further improved to measure the homogeneity of S on individual fiber level in pulp and paper industry. For the scanning technique, it is a tradeoff between resolution and measurement time. Another technique is FF-XRF imaging, and a setup was implemented using an energy resolving pixel detector and X-ray optics. The capabilities and limitations of using X-ray optics in XRF imaging systems have been identified. These microscopy measurements can guide further comprehensive environmental and industrial monitoring missions, utilizing elemental distribution information.
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| 5. |
- Dreier, Till, et al.
(författare)
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A USB 3.0 readout system for Timepix3 detectors with on-board processing capabilities
- 2018
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Ingår i: Journal of Instrumentation. - 1748-0221. ; 13
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Timepix3 is a high-speed hybrid pixel detector consisting of a 256 x 256 pixel matrix with a maximum data rate of up to 5.12 Gbps (80 MHit/s). The ASIC is equipped with eight data channels that are data driven and zero suppressed making it suitable for particle tracking and spectral imaging.In this paper, we present a USB 3.0-based programmable readout system with online preprocessing capabilities. USB 3.0 is present on all modern computers and can, under real-world conditions, achieve around 320MB/s, which allows up to 40 MHit/s of raw pixel data. With on-line processing, the proposed readout system is capable of achieving higher transfer rate (approaching Timepix4) since only relevant information rather than raw data will be transmitted. The system is based on an Opal Kelly development board with a Spartan 6 FPGA providing a USB 3.0 interface between FPGA and PC via an FX3 chip. It connects to a CERN T imepix 3 chipboard with standard VHDCI connector via a custom designed mezzanine card. The firmware is structured into blocks such as detector interface, USB interface and system control and an interface for data pre-processing. On the PC side, a Qt/C++ multi-platformsoftware library is implemented to control the readout system, providing access to detector functions and handling high-speed USB 3.0 streaming of data from the detector.We demonstrate equalisation, calibration and data acquisition using a Cadmium Telluride sensor and optimise imaging data using simultaneous ToT (Time-over-Threshold) and ToA (Timeof- Arrival) information. The presented readout system is capable of other on-line processing such as analysis and classification of nuclear particles with current or larger FPGAs.
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| 6. |
- Fröjdh, Christer, et al.
(författare)
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Spectral resolution in pixel detectors with single photon processing
- 2013
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Ingår i: Proceedings SPIE Optical Engineering + Applications, 2013. - : SPIE - International Society for Optical Engineering. - 9780819497024
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Pixel detectors based on photon counting or single photon processing readout are becoming popular for spectral X-ray imaging. The detector is based on deep submicron electronics with functions to determine the energy of each individual photon in every pixel. The system is virtually noiseless when it comes to the number of the detected photons. However noise and variations in system parameters affect the determination of the photon energy. Several factors affect the energy resolution in the system. In the readout electronics the most important factors are the threshold dispersion, the gain variation and the electronic noise. In the sensor contributions come from charge sharing, variations in the charge collection efficiency, leakage current and the statistical nature of the charge generation, as described by the Fano factor. The MEDIPIX technology offers a powerful tool for investigating these effects since energy spectra can be captured in each pixel. In addition the TIMEPIX chip, when operated in Time over Threshold mode, offers an opportunity to analyze individual photon interactions, thus addressing charge sharing and fluorescence. Effects of charge sharing and the properties of charge summing can be investigated using MEDIPIX3RX. Experiments are performed using both Si and CdTe detectors. In this paper we discuss the various contributions to the spectral noise and how they affect detector response. The statements are supported with experimental data from MEDIPIX-type detectors.
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| 7. |
- Krapohl, David, 1980-
(författare)
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Comparison of energy resolution spectra of CdTe TIMEPIX detector working in photon counting and time-over-threshold mode
- 2013
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Ingår i: IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium Conference Record. ; , s. Art. no. 6829825-
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Hybrid pixel detectors like the Medipix andTIMEPIX developed by the Medipix collaboration combinedwith high-z materials are of growing interest. In particular theTIMEPIX detector can be operated in photon counting mode andtime-over-threshold mode (ToT) to obtain spectral information.Previous studies showed that 110 μm pixel sizes obtain a betterenergy resolution than 55 μm pixel sizes. Furthermore, thresholdscans obtained a better spectral resolution than operation in ToTmode. In this work the influence of noise sources in differentmeasurement approaches on the spectral response of a TIMEPIXchip bump-bonded to CdTe sensor are presented. Two 1mmthick CdTe sensors with pixel sizes of 55 μm and 110 μm,bump-bonded to a TIMEPIX readout chip, were evaluated atthe Diamond Light Source synchrotron. A finely collimated,perpendicular pencil beam with x-ray energies of 25 keV and79 keV was used to investigate single pixels. A small area of 10x10pixels was investigated in ToT-mode and compared to a thresholdscan of the same pixels on both detectors. The measurementsare compared to an analytical SPICE/Python simulation thatemulates photon counting and time-over-threshold mode.
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| 8. |
- Krapohl, David, 1980-, et al.
(författare)
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Investigation of charge collection in a CdTe-Timepix detector
- 2013
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Ingår i: Journal of Instrumentation. - 1748-0221. ; 8:May, s. Art. no. C05003-
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Energy calibration of CdTe detectors is usually done using known reference sources disregarding the exact amount of charge that is collected in the pixels. However, to compare detector and detector model the quantity of charge collected is needed. We characterize the charge collection in a CdTe detector comparing test pulses, measured data and an improved TCAD simulation model [1]. The 1 mm thick detector is bump-bonded to a TIMEPIX chip and operating in Time-over-Threshold (ToT) mode. The resistivity in the simulation was adjusted to match the detector properties setting a deep intrinsic donor level [2]. This way it is possible to adjust properties like trap concentration, electron/hole lifetime and mobility in the simulation characterizing the detector close to measured data cite [3].
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| 9. |
- Krapohl, David, 1980-
(författare)
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Monte Carlo and Charge Transport Simulation of Pixel Detector Systems
- 2015
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This thesis is about simulation of semiconductor X-ray and particledetectors. The simulation of a novel coating for solid state neutrondetectors is discussed as well as the implementation of a simulationframework for hybrid pixel detectors.Today’s most common thermal neutron detectors are proportionalcounters, that use 3He gas in large tubes or multi wire arrays. Globalnuclear disarmament and the increase in use for homeland securityapplications has created a shortage of the gas which poses a problemfor neutron spallation sources that require higher resolution and largersensors. In this thesis a novel material and clean room compatible pro-cess for neutron conversion are discussed. Simulations and fabricationhave been executed and analysed in measurements. It has been proventhat such a device can be fabricated and detect thermal neutrons.Spectral imaging hybrid pixel detectors like the Medipix chipare the most advanced imaging systems currently available. Thesechips are highly sophisticated with several hundreds of transistors perpixel to enable features like multiple thresholds for noise free photoncounting measurements, spectral imaging as well as time of arrivalmeasurements. To analyse and understand the behaviour of differentsensor materials bonded to the chip and to improve development offuture generations of the chip simulations are necessary. Generally, allparts of the detector system are simulated independently. However, itis favourable to have a simulation framework that is able to combineMonte Carlo particle transport, charge transport in the sensor as wellas analogue and digital response of the pixel read-out electronics. Thisthesis aims to develop such a system that has been developed withGeant4 and analytical semiconductor and electronics models. Further-more, it has been verified with data from measurements with severalMedipix and Timepix sensors as well as TCAD simulations.Results show that such a framework is feasible even for imagingsimulations. It shows great promise to be able to be extended withfuture pixel detector designs and semiconductor materials as well asneutron converters to aim for next generation imaging devices.
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| 10. |
- Krapohl, David, 1980-, et al.
(författare)
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Simulation of the Spectral Response of a Pixellated X-Ray Imaging Detector in Single Photon Processing Mode
- 2010
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Ingår i: 2010 Nuclear Science Symposium and Medical Imaging Conference. - : IEEE conference proceedings.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- X-ray imaging with spectral resolution, “Color X-ray imaging” is a new imaging technology that is currently attracting a lot of attention. It has however been observed that the quality of spectral response is degraded as the pixel size is reduced. This is an effect of charge sharing where the signal from a photon absorbed close to the border between two pixels is shared between pixels. This effect is caused by both diffusion during the charge transport and X-ray fluorescence in heavy detector materials. In order to understand the behavior of pixellated detectors with heavy detector materials operating in single photon processing mode, we have simulated the X-ray interaction with the sensor and the transport of the charge to the readout electrode using a Monte Carlo model for the X-ray interaction and a drift diffusion model for the charge transport. By combining these models, both signal and noise properties of the detector can be simulated.
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