| 1. |
- Ballarotta, Maxime, 1984-, et al.
(författare)
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A Last Glacial Maximum world-ocean simulation at eddy-permitting resolution – Part 1: Experimental design and basic evaluation
- 2013
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Ingår i: Climate of the Past Discussions. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1814-9340 .- 1814-9359. ; 9, s. 297-328
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Most state-of-the-art climate models include a coarsely resolved oceanic compo- nent, which has difficulties in capturing detailed dynamics, and therefore eddy- permitting/eddy-resolving simulations have been developed to reproduce the observed World Ocean. In this study, an eddy-permitting numerical experiment is conducted to simulate the global ocean state for a period of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ∼26500 to 19000yr ago) and to investigate the improvements due to taking into account these higher spatial scales. The ocean general circulation model is forced by a 49-yr sample of LGM atmospheric fields constructed from a quasi-equilibrated climate-model simulation. The initial state and the bottom boundary condition conform to the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) recommendations. Be- fore evaluating the model efficiency in representing the paleo-proxy reconstruction of the surface state, the LGM experiment is in this first part of the investigation, compared with a present-day eddy-permitting hindcast simulation as well as with the available PMIP results. It is shown that the LGM eddy-permitting simulation is consistent with the quasi-equilibrated climate-model simulation, but large discrepancies are found with the PMIP model analyses, probably due to the different equilibration states. The strongest meridional gradients of the sea-surface temperature are located near 40° N and S, this due to particularly large North-Atlantic and Southern-Ocean sea-ice covers. These also modify the locations of the convection sites (where deep-water forms) and most of the LGM Conveyor Belt circulation consequently takes place in a thinner layer than today. Despite some discrepancies with other LGM simulations, a glacial state is captured and the eddy-permitting simulation undertaken here yielded a useful set of data for comparisons with paleo-proxy reconstructions.
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| 2. |
- Ballarotta, Maxime, 1984-, et al.
(författare)
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A Last Glacial Maximum World-Ocean simulation at eddy-permitting resolution – Part 2: Confronting the paleo-proxy data
- 2013
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Ingår i: Climate of the Past Discussions. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1814-9340 .- 1814-9359. ; 9, s. 329-350
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Previous investigations concerning the design of an eddy-permitting LGM oceanic sim- ulation are here extended with focus on whether this type of simulation is capable of improving the numerical results with regard to the available paleo-proxy reconstructions. Consequently, an eddy-permitting and two coarse-grid simulations of the same LGM period are confronted with a dataset from the Multiproxy Approach for the Recon- struction of the Glacial Ocean Sea Surface Temperatures (MARGO SSTs) and a num- ber of sea-ice reconstructions. From a statistical analysis it was found that the eddy- permitting simulation does not significantly improve the SST representation with regard to the paleo-reconstructions. The western boundary currents are better resolved in the high-resolution experiment than in the coarse simulations, but, although these more detailed SST structures yield a locally improved consistency between modelled pre- dictions and proxies, they do not contribute significantly to the global statistical score. As in the majority of the PMIP2 simulations, the modelled sea-ice conditions are still inconsistent with the paleo-reconstructions, probably due to the choice of the model equilibrium.
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| 3. |
- Ballarotta, Maxime, et al.
(författare)
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Last Glacial Maximum world ocean simulations at eddy-permitting and coarse resolutions : do eddies contribute to a better consistency between models and palaeoproxies?
- 2013
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Ingår i: Climate of the Past. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1814-9324 .- 1814-9332. ; 9:6, s. 2669-2686
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Most state-of-the-art climate models include a coarsely resolved oceanic component, which hardly captures detailed dynamics, whereas eddy-permitting and eddy-resolving simulations are developed to reproduce the observed ocean. In this study, an eddy-permitting and a coarse resolution numerical experiment are conducted to simulate the global ocean state for the period of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, similar to 26 500 to 19 000 yr ago) and to investigate the improvements due to taking into account the smaller spatial scales. The ocean state from each simulation is confronted with a data set from the Multiproxy Approach for the Reconstruction of the Glacial Ocean (MARGO) sea surface temperatures (SSTs), some reconstructions of the palaeo-circulations and a number of sea-ice reconstructions. The western boundary currents and the Southern Ocean dynamics are better resolved in the high-resolution experiment than in the coarse simulation, but, although these more detailed SST structures yield a locally improved consistency between model predictions and proxies, they do not contribute significantly to the global statistical score. The SSTs in the tropical coastal upwelling zones are also not significantly improved by the eddy-permitting regime. The models perform in the mid-latitudes but as in the majority of the Paleo-climate Modelling Intercomparison Project simulations, the modelled sea-ice conditions are inconsistent with the palaeo-reconstructions. The effects of observation locations on the comparison between observed and simulated SST suggest that more sediment cores may be required to draw reliable conclusions about the improvements introduced by the high resolution model for reproducing the global SSTs. One has to be careful with the interpretation of the deep ocean state which has not reached statistical equilibrium in our simulations. However, the results indicate that the meridional overturning circulations are different between the two regimes, suggesting that the model parametrizations might also play a key role for simulating past climate states.
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| 4. |
- Ballarotta, Maxime, et al.
(författare)
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On the glacial and interglacial thermohaline circulation and the associated transports of heat and freshwater
- 2014
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Ingår i: Ocean Science. - Gottingen : Copernicus Publications. - 1812-0784 .- 1812-0792. ; 10:6, s. 907-921
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The thermohaline circulation (THC) and the oceanic heat and freshwater transports are essential for understanding the global climate system. Streamfunctions are widely used in oceanography to represent the THC and estimate the transport of heat and freshwater. In the present study, the regional and global changes of the THC, the transports of heat and freshwater and the timescale of the circulation between the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ≈ 21 kyr ago) and the present-day climate are explored using an Ocean General Circulation Model and streamfunctions projected in various coordinate systems. We found that the LGM tropical circulation is about 10% stronger than under modern conditions due to stronger wind stress. Consequently, the maximum tropical transport of heat is about 20% larger during the LGM. In the North Atlantic basin, the large sea-ice extent during the LGM constrains the Gulf Stream to propagate in a more zonal direction, reducing the transport of heat towards high latitudes by almost 50% and reorganising the freshwater transport. The strength of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation depends strongly on the coordinate system. It varies between 9 and 16 Sv during the LGM, and between 12 to 19 Sv for the present day. Similar to paleo-proxy reconstructions, a large intrusion of saline Antarctic Bottom Water takes place into the Northern Hemisphere basins and squeezes most of the Conveyor Belt circulation into a shallower part of the ocean. These different haline regimes between the glacial and interglacial period are illustrated by the streamfunctions in latitude–salinity coordinates and thermohaline coordinates. From these diagnostics, we found that the LGM Conveyor Belt circulation is driven by an enhanced salinity contrast between the Atlantic and the Pacific basin. The LGM abyssal circulation lifts and makes the Conveyor Belt cell deviate from the abyssal region, resulting in a ventilated upper layer above a deep stagnant layer, and an Atlantic circulation more isolated from the Pacific. An estimate of the timescale of the circulation reveals a sluggish abyssal circulation during the LGM, and a Conveyor Belt circulation that is more vigorous due to the combination of a stronger wind stress and a shortened circulation route.
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| 5. |
- Ballarotta, Maxime, 1984-, et al.
(författare)
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The vigorous large-scale ocean circulations during the Last Glacial Maximum
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Annan publikation (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The representation of the ocean thermohaline circulation (THC) under glacial and interglacial climate conditions is investigated using a new global thermohaline stream function. Consequently, the interglacial and glacial THCs are compared from two experiments based on an ocean general circulation model forced at the surface by conditions representing the present-day and the period of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ≈ 21kyr ago). It is shown that the LGM THC is amplified by the salinity/density contrast between the Atlantic and the Pacific basins, as well as in the abyss due to larger salinity gradients. Even though the circuit along the Conveyor Belt loop is not drastically changed, the water mass transformations can regionally differ between the two periods. Additionally, the LGM Conveyor Belt Cell is more isolated from the abyss and its turnover time is between two and three times shorter than in the present-day simulation, suggesting vigorous large-scale circulation.
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| 6. |
- Brodeau, Laurent, et al.
(författare)
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An ERA40-based atmospheric forcing for global ocean circulation models
- 2010
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Ingår i: Ocean Modelling. - : Elsevier BV. - 1463-5003 .- 1463-5011. ; 31:3-4, s. 88-104
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We develop, calibrate and test a dataset intended to drive global ocean hindcasts simulations of the last five decades. This dataset provides surface meteorological variables needed to estimate air-sea fluxes and is built from 6-hourly surface atmospheric state variables of ERA40. We first compare the raw fields of ERA40 to the CORE.v1 dataset of Large and Yeager (2004), used here as a reference, and discuss our choice to use daily radiative fluxes and monthly precipitation products extracted from satellite data rather than their ERA40 counterparts. Both datasets lead to excessively high global imbalances of heat and freshwater fluxes when tested with a prescribed climatological sea surface temperature. After identifying unrealistic time discontinuities (induced by changes in the nature of assimilated observations) and obvious global and regional biases in ERA40 fields (by comparison to high quality observations), we propose a set of corrections. Tropical surface air humidity is decreased from 1979 onward, representation of Arctic surface air temperature is improved using recent observations and the wind is globally increased. These corrections lead to a significant decrease of the excessive positive global imbalance of heat. Radiation and precipitation fields are then submitted to a small adjustment (in zonal mean) that yields a near-zero global imbalance of heat and freshwater. A set of 47-year-long simulations is carried out with the coarse-resolution (2° × 2°) version of the NEMO OGCM to assess the sensitivity of the model to the proposed corrections. Model results show that each of the proposed correction contributes to improve the representation of central features of the global ocean circulation.
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| 7. |
- Brodeau, Laurent, et al.
(författare)
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Climatologically significant effects of some approximations in the bulk parameterizations of turbulent air-sea fluxes
- 2017
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Ingår i: Journal of Physical Oceanography. - 0022-3670 .- 1520-0485. ; 47:1, s. 5-28
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper quantifies the impacts of approximations and assumptions in the parameterization of bulk formulae on the exchange of momentum, heat, and freshwater computed between the ocean and atmosphere. An ensemble of sensitivity experiments are examined. Climatologies of wind stress, turbulent heat flux, and evaporation for the 1982-2014 period are computed using SST and surface meteorological state variables from the ERA-Interim reanalysis. Each experiment differs from the defined control experiment in only one aspect of the parameterization of the bulk formulae. The wind stress is most sensitive to the closure used to relate the neutral drag coefficient to the wind speed in the bulk algorithm, which mainly involves the value of the Charnock parameter. The disagreement between the state-of-the-art algorithms examined is typically of the order of 10%. The largest uncertainties in turbulent heat flux and evaporation are also related to the choice of the algorithm (typically 15%), but also emerge in experiments examining approximations related to the surface temperature and saturation humidity. Thus, approximations for the skin temperature and the salt-related reduction of saturation humidity have a substantial impact on the heat flux and evaporation (typically 10%). Approximations such as the use of a fixed air density, sea level pressure, or simplified formula for the saturation humidity, lead to errors no larger than 4% when tested individually. The impacts of these approximations combine linearly when implemented together, yielding errors up to 20% over mid- and subpolar latitudes.
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| 8. |
- Brodeau, Laurent, et al.
(författare)
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Extinction of the northern oceanic deep convection in an ensemble of climate model simulations of the 20th and 21st centuries
- 2016
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Ingår i: Climate Dynamics. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0930-7575 .- 1432-0894. ; 46:9, s. 2863-2882
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We study the variability and the evolution of oceanic deep convection in the northern North Atlantic and the Nordic Seas from 1850 to 2100 using an ensemble of 12 climate model simulations with EC-Earth. During the historical period, the model shows a realistic localization of the main sites of deep convection, with the Labrador Sea accounting for most of the deep convective mixing in the northern hemisphere. Labrador convection is partly driven by the NAO (correlation of 0.6) and controls part of the variability of the AMOC at the decadal time scale (correlation of 0.6 when convection leads by 3-4 years). Deep convective activity in the Labrador Sea starts to decline and to become shallower in the beginning of the twentieth century. The decline is primarily caused by a decrease of the sensible heat loss to the atmosphere in winter resulting from increasingly warm atmospheric conditions. It occurs stepwise and is mainly the consequence of two severe drops in deep convective activity during the 1920s and the 1990s. These two events can both be linked to the low-frequency variability of the NAO. A warming of the sub-surface, resulting from reduced convective mixing, combines with an increasing influx of freshwater from the Nordic Seas to rapidly strengthen the surface stratification and prevent any possible resurgence of deep convection in the Labrador Sea after the 2020s. Deep convection in the Greenland Sea starts to decline in the 2020s, until complete extinction in 2100. As a response to the extinction of deep convection in the Labrador and Greenland Seas, the AMOC undergoes a linear decline at a rate of about -0.3 Sv per decade during the twenty-first century.
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| 9. |
- Döös, Kristofer, et al.
(författare)
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Dispersion of surface drifters and model-simulated trajectories
- 2011
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Ingår i: Ocean Modelling. - : Elsevier BV. - 1463-5003 .- 1463-5011. ; 39:3-4, s. 301-310
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- From a data set encompassing the years 1990-2008 pairs of surface drifters with maximum initial separations of 5, 10 and 25 km have been identified. Model trajectories have been calculated using the same initial positions and times as the selected pairs of surface drifters. The model trajectories are based on the TRACMASS trajectory code and driven by the ocean general circulation model NEMO. The trajectories are calculated off-line, i.e. with the stored velocity fields from the circulation model. The sensitivity of the trajectory simulations to the frequency of the stored velocity fields was tested for periods of 3 and 6 h as well as 5 days. The relative dispersion of the surface-drifter and model trajectories has been compared, where the latter was found to be too low compared to the relative dispersion of the drifters. Two low-order trajectory sub-grid parameterisations were tested and successfully tuned so that the total amplitude of the relative dispersion of the model trajectories is similar to that associated with the drifter trajectories. These parameterisations are, however, too simple for a correct simulation of Lagrangian properties such as the correlation time scales and the variance of the eddy kinetic energy. The importance of model-grid resolution is quantified by comparing the relative dispersion from an eddy-permitting and a coarse-resolution model, respectively. The dispersion rate is halved with the coarse grid. The consequences of the two-dimensionality of the trajectories is evaluated by comparing the results obtained with the 2D and the Lagrangian 3D trajectories. This shows that the relative dispersion is 15% stronger when the trajectories are freely advected with the 3D velocity field.
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| 10. |
- Döös, Kristofer, et al.
(författare)
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The Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Hydrothermohaline Circulation
- 2017
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Ingår i: Journal of Climate. - 0894-8755 .- 1520-0442. ; 30:2, s. 631-647
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The thermohaline circulation of the ocean is compared to the hydrothermal circulation of the atmosphere. The oceanic thermohaline circulation is expressed in potential temperature-absolute salinity space and comprises a tropical cell, a conveyor belt cell, and a polar cell, whereas the atmospheric hydrothermal circulation is expressed in potential temperature-specific humidity space and unifies the tropical Hadley and Walker cells as well as the midlatitude eddies into a single, global circulation. The oceanic thermohaline streamfunction makes it possible to analyze and quantify the entire World Ocean conversion rate between cold-warm and fresh-saline waters in one single representation. Its atmospheric analog, the hydrothermal streamfunction, instead captures the conversion rate between cold-warm and dry-humid air in one single representation. It is shown that the ocean thermohaline and the atmospheric hydrothermal cells are connected by the exchange of heat and freshwater through the sea surface. The two circulations are compared on the same diagramby scaling the axes such that the latent heat energy required to move an air parcel on the moisture axis is equivalent to that needed to move a water parcel on the salinity axis. Such a comparison leads the authors to propose that the Clausius-Clapeyron relationship guides both the moist branch of the atmospheric hydrothermal circulation and the warming branches of the tropical and conveyor belt cells of the oceanic thermohaline circulation.
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