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- Klionsky, Daniel J., et al.
(författare)
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Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy
- 2012
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Ingår i: Autophagy. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1554-8635 .- 1554-8627. ; 8:4, s. 445-544
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- In 2008 we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, research on this topic has continued to accelerate, and many new scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Accordingly, it is important to update these guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Various reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose. Nevertheless, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. A key point that needs to be emphasized is that there is a difference between measurements that monitor the numbers or volume of autophagic elements (e.g., autophagosomes or autolysosomes) at any stage of the autophagic process vs. those that measure flux through the autophagy pathway (i.e., the complete process); thus, a block in macroautophagy that results in autophagosome accumulation needs to be differentiated from stimuli that result in increased autophagic activity, defined as increased autophagy induction coupled with increased delivery to, and degradation within, lysosomes (in most higher eukaryotes and some protists such as Dictyostelium) or the vacuole (in plants and fungi). In other words, it is especially important that investigators new to the field understand that the appearance of more autophagosomes does not necessarily equate with more autophagy. In fact, in many cases, autophagosomes accumulate because of a block in trafficking to lysosomes without a concomitant change in autophagosome biogenesis, whereas an increase in autolysosomes may reflect a reduction in degradative activity. Here, we present a set of guidelines for the selection and interpretation of methods for use by investigators who aim to examine macroautophagy and related processes, as well as for reviewers who need to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of papers that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a formulaic set of rules, because the appropriate assays depend in part on the question being asked and the system being used. In addition, we emphasize that no individual assay is guaranteed to be the most appropriate one in every situation, and we strongly recommend the use of multiple assays to monitor autophagy. In these guidelines, we consider these various methods of assessing autophagy and what information can, or cannot, be obtained from them. Finally, by discussing the merits and limits of particular autophagy assays, we hope to encourage technical innovation in the field.
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| 3. |
- Burden, Håkan, et al.
(författare)
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A Comparison of AI Policies and Programmes in Finland, the Netherlands and Sweden – Case Sweden
- 2023
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In 2018 the Swedish Government released its strategy on AI, the national approach for artificial intelligence. The strategy focuses on three main areas – education, research and innovation – with the ambition that Sweden would be the best country in the world regarding applying AI. Two key areas were mentioned – the competitiveness of Swedish enterprises on a global market and the strengthening of the public sector.Since then, the domestic discourse has changed, as Social-democratic lead governments have been replaced by a Conservative-Liberal government, the launch of ChatGPT, as well as the introduction of EUs Digital Decade with new targets for digitalisation and a proposed regulation of AI. We have therefore conducted a first evaluation of the strategy and the state of AI in Sweden. Based on official reports and interviews we recommend that the Swedish strategy on AI should …… acknowledge the EU and accommodate for the upcoming regulations and resources within the Digital Decade,… embrace the pluralism of Swedish governance and facilitate collaboration among authorities and different levels of administration,... ensure the competence and the mandate of the public sector accordingly,... be adaptable to changes in both the domestic and international discourse,… investigate long-term funding solutions of strategic AI initiatives, and finally,… define sustainable and ethical AI in order to facilitate responsible usage and development of AI as well as facilitate procurement.This will require prioritisation of targets and initiatives as well as a way of assessing progress which is suitable for the Swedish context.
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