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- Carlsson, Magnus
(författare)
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Physiological demands of competitive elite cross-country skiing
- 2015
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Introduction Researchers have, for decades, contributed to an increased collective understanding of the physiological demands in cross-country skiing; however, almost all of these studies have used either non-elite subjects and/or performances that emulate cross-country skiing. To establish the physiological demands of cross-country skiing, it is important to relate the investigated physiological variables to the competitive performance of elite skiers. The overall aim of this doctoral thesis was, therefore, to investigate the external validity of physiological test variables to determine the physiological demands in competitive elite cross-country skiing.Methods The subjects in Study I – IV were elite male (I – III) and female (III – IV) cross-country skiers. In all studies, the relationship between test variables (general and ski-specific) and competitive performances (i.e. the results from competitions or the overall ski-ranking points of the International Ski Federation (FIS) for sprint (FISsprint) and distance (FISdist) races) were analysed. Test variables reflecting the subject’s general strength, upper-body and whole-body oxygen uptake, oxygen uptake and work intensity at the lactate threshold, mean upper-body power, lean mass, and maximal double-poling speed were investigated.Results The ability to maintain a high work rate without accumulating lactate is an indicator of distance performance, independent of sex (I, IV). Independent of sex, high oxygen uptake in whole-body and upper-body exercise was important for both sprint (II, IV) and distance (I, IV) performance. The maximal double-poling speed and 60-s double-poling mean power output were indicators of sprint (IV) and distance performance (I), respectively. Lean mass was correlated with distance performance for women (III), whereas correlations were found between lean mass and sprint performance among both male and female skiers (III). Moreover, no correlations between distance performance and test variables were derived from tests of knee-extension peak torque, vertical jumps, or double poling on a ski-ergometer with 20-s and 360-s durations (I), whereas gross efficiency while treadmill roller skiing showed no correlation with either distance or sprint performance in cross-country skiing (IV).Conclusion The results in this thesis show that, depending on discipline and sex, maximal and peak oxygen uptake, work intensity at the lactate threshold, lean mass, double-poling mean power output, and double-poling maximal speed are all externally valid physiological test variables for evaluation of performance capability among elite cross-country skiers; however, to optimally indicate performance capability different test-variable expressions should be used; in general, the absolute expression appears to be a better indicator of competitive sprint performance whereas the influence of body mass should be considered when evaluating competitive distance performance capability of elite cross-country skiers.
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| 2. |
- Nilsson, Robert, 1981-
(författare)
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Competitive performance prediction of elite alpine skiers
- 2019
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Introduction: The overall aim of this doctoral thesis was to identify physiological and anthropometric variables valid for prediction of competitive performance in alpine skiing (indicated by FIS points).Method: Paper I-III in this doctoral thesis followed an experimental, hypothesis-generating design which included both junior and senior elite alpine skiers. In all papers, physiological and anthropometric test results (X-variables) were correlated with FIS points (Y-variables) in order to investigate the predictive power of physiological and anthropometric variables for competitive performance in alpine skiing. The significance of the included test results was examined using bivariate and multivariate data analysis.Results: The results of Paper I show that included aerobic test results, neither alone nor in combination with anthropometric variables, could predict competitive performance of junior elite alpine skiers. Principal component analysis shows that male and female junior alpine skiers could be separated based on test results but that none of the included tests were important for sport-specific performance. The best multivariate models reached R2 = 0.51 to 0.86 and Q2 = -0.73 to 0.18. While several significant regression models could be observed, none of these met the criteria for valid models. The lack of predictive power of observed prediction models was confirmed by cross-validation. The results of Paper II show that included physiological test results from the test battery Fysprofilen could not predict competitive performance of senior elite female alpine skiers. Principal component analysis shows that there is a high correlation between individual physiological test results and their corresponding Fysprofilen score points, indicating that they can be used interchangeably. The Mann-Whitney U test was not significant neither for SL nor for GS. This suggests that Fysprofilen score points (summarized as Fysprofilen Index) and competitive performance (indicated by FIS points) are independent. The best multivariate models for SL and GS reached R2 = 0.27 to 0.43 and Q2 = - 0.8 to - 0.17, indicating low predictive power for competitive performance (as confirmed by cross-validation). The results of Paper III show that included physiological test results from a novel test battery could not predict competitive performance of senior elite female alpine skiers on a group level. When data were analyzed on a group level, the best models for SL and GS reached R2 = 0.39 to 0.40, Q2 = 0.15 to 0.21, indicating low predictive power. In contrast, when data were analyzed on an individual level, valid models with high predictive power (R2 = 0.88 to 0.99 and Q2 = 0.64 to 0.96) were generated. A comparative analysis between individual multivariate models shows that the relative importance of different physiological qualities for athletic performance varies between skiers.Conclusion: When applying tests on alpine skiers, a holistic approach should be considered. This because competitive performance in alpine skiing is the result of a number of interacting dimensions. Before applying physiological tests, the validity and reliability of the test protocols must also be determined. Administering tests that do not meet these criteria will probably waste not only important resources for clubs and ski federations but also risk misleading coaches and athletes when planning and implementing preparatory training.
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| 3. |
- Carlsson, Tomas
(författare)
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The importance of body-mass exponent optimization for evaluation of performance capability in cross-country skiing
- 2015
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Introduction Performance in cross-country skiing is influenced by the skier’s ability to continuously produce propelling forces and force magnitude in relation to the net external forces. A surrogate indicator of the “power supply” in cross-country skiing would be a physiological variable that reflects an important performance-related capability, whereas the body mass itself is an indicator of the “power demand” experienced by the skier. To adequately evaluate an elite skier’s performance capability, it is essential to establish the optimal ratio between the physiological variable and body mass. The overall aim of this doctoral thesis was to investigate the importance of body-mass exponent optimization for the evaluation of performance capability in cross-country skiing.Methods In total, 83 elite cross-country skiers (56 men and 27 women) volunteered to participate in the four studies. The physiological variables of maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) and oxygen uptake corresponding to a blood-lactate concentration of 4 mmol∙l-1 (V̇O2obla) were determined while treadmill roller skiing using the diagonal-stride technique; mean oxygen uptake (V̇O2dp) and upper-body power output (Ẇ) were determined during double-poling tests using a ski-ergometer. Competitive performance data for elite male skiers were collected from two 15-km classical-technique skiing competitions and a 1.25-km sprint prologue; additionally, a 2-km double-poling roller-skiing time trial using the double-poling technique was used as an indicator of upper-body performance capability among elite male and female junior skiers. Power-function modelling was used to explain the race and time-trial speeds based on the physiological variables and body mass.Results The optimal V̇O2max-to-mass ratios to explain 15-km race speed were V̇O2max divided by body mass raised to the 0.48 and 0.53 power, and these models explained 68% and 69% of the variance in mean skiing speed, respectively; moreover, the 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the body-mass exponents did not include either 0 or 1. For the modelling of race speed in the sprint prologue, body mass failed to contribute to the models based on V̇O2max, V̇O2obla, and V̇O2dp. The upper-body power output-to-body mass ratio that optimally explained time-trial speed was Ẇ ∙ m-0.57 and the model explained 63% of the variance in speed.Conclusions The results in this thesis suggest that V̇O2max divided by the square root of body mass should be used as an indicator of performance in 15-km classical-technique races among elite male skiers rather than the absolute or simple ratio-standard scaled expression. To optimally explain an elite male skier’s performance capability in sprint prologues, power-function models based on oxygen-uptake variables expressed absolutely are recommended. Moreover, to evaluate elite junior skiers’ performance capabilities in 2-km double-poling roller-skiing time trials, it is recommended that Ẇ divided by the square root of body mass should be used rather than absolute or simple ratio-standard scaled expression of power output.
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| 4. |
- Hult, Andreas, 1981-
(författare)
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Towards a detailed understanding of the red blood cell storage lesion : and its consequences for in vivo survival following transfusion
- 2015
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Red blood cells (RBCs) are vital for oxygen delivery to tissues and constitute the vast majority of all cells in blood. After leaving the red bone marrow as mature cells, RBCs have a lifespan of approximately 120 days before they are removed from the circulation by macrophages, mainly in the spleen and liver. RBC transfusion is a common therapy in modern healthcare. Major surgery, numerous cancer treatments and other, often lifesaving, interventions would be unthinkable without available blood supply. For this reason, hospitals store donated RBCs in blood banks.The metabolic and structural changes that occur during prolonged storage of RBCs (the storage lesion) have been studied in detail in vitro and include oxidative stress, a reduction in glycolysis, increased membrane rigidity and shedding of microparticles from the RBC membrane. Stored RBCs share several features of senescent RBCs, but also with RBCs undergoing an apoptotic-like process called eryptosis. A consequence of the storage lesion is the fact that as much as 25% of stored RBCs could be rapidly removed from the circulation within 24 hours after transfusion. The mechanisms behind this rapid macrophage-mediated recognition and removal of stored RBCs, and its immunological consequences, remain largely unknown. Therefore, the aims of this thesis were to investigate if cryopreserved human RBCs induced an inflammatory response following autologous transfusion into healthy volunteers, and to further understand the mechanisms behind macrophage recognition of stored RBCs in vitro and in vivo.Autologous transfusion of two units of cryopreserved RBCs into healthy human recipients was found to be associated with an increased extravascular RBC elimination already at 2 hours after transfusion. However, there were no signs of an increased production of any of the investigated pro-inflammatory cytokines, indicating that an increase in the destruction of RBCs per se did not induce an inflammatory response.Eryptosis is a form of induced RBC death associated with an increased cytoplasmic Ca2+ uptake. We found that a subset of human RBCs increased their Ca2+ permeability during prolonged storage at +4°C. Using a murine model, to further understand how RBCs with an increased Ca2+ permeability were eliminated by phagocytic cells in the spleen, it was found that such RBCs were taken up by marginal zone macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) in a manner distinct from that of naturally senescent RBCs. The DC population particularly efficient in this process expressed CD207 and are known for their ability to promote immunological tolerance. Eryptotic cell uptake was not regulated by the phagocytosis-inhibitory protein CD47 on the RBCs.To investigate how RBCs damaged during liquid storage are recognized and taken up by macrophages, a model to store and transfuse murine RBCs was developed. This storage model generated murine RBCs with several characteristics similar to that of stored human RBCs (i.e. loss of ATP, formation of RBC microparticles and rapid clearance of up to 35% of the RBCs during the first 24 h after transfusion). In vitro phagocytosis of human as well as murine stored RBCs was serum dependent and could be inhibited by blocking class A scavenger receptors using fucoidan or dextran sulphate.In conclusion, the findings of this thesis contribute to further understanding how changes inflicted to RBCs during storage direct the fate of these cells in their interaction with cells of the immune system after transfusion. The observation of an increased Ca2+ permeability of stored RBCs, and the possible recognition of such cells by tolerance-promoting DCs, in combination with the findings that class A scavenger receptors and serum factors may mediate recognition of stored RBCs, may result in novel new directions of research within the field of transfusion medicine.
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