| 1. |
- Mackenbach, Johan P, et al.
(författare)
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Socioeconomic inequalities in health in 22 European countries
- 2008
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Ingår i: New England Journal of Medicine. - 0028-4793 .- 1533-4406. ; 358:23, s. 2468-2481
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We observed variation across Europe in the magnitude of inequalities in health associated with socioeconomic status. These inequalities might be reduced by improving educational opportunities, income distribution, health-related behavior, or access to health care.
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| 2. |
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| 3. |
- Schaap, M. M., et al.
(författare)
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Effect of nationwide tobacco control policies on smoking cessation in high and low educated groups in 18 European countries
- 2008
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Ingår i: Tobacco Control. - : BMJ. - 0964-4563 .- 1468-3318. ; 17:4, s. 248-255
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background: Recently a scale was introduced to quantify the implementation of tobacco control policies at country level. Our study used this scale to examine the potential impact of these policies on quit ratios in European countries. Special attention was given to smoking cessation among lower educational groups. Methods: Cross-sectional data were derived from national health surveys from 18 European countries. In the analyses we distinguished between country, sex, two age groups (25-39 and 40-59 years) and educational level. Age-standardised quit ratios were calculated as total former-smokers divided by total ever-smokers. In regression analyses we explored the correlation between national quit ratios and the national score on the Tobacco Control Scale (TCS). Results: Quit ratios were especially high (> 45%) in Sweden, England, The Netherlands, Belgium and France and relatively low (< 30%) in Lithuania and Latvia. Higher educated smokers were more likely to have quit smoking than lower educated smokers in all age-sex groups in all countries. National score on the tobacco control scale was positively associated with quit ratios in all age-sex groups. The association of quit ratios with score on TCS did not show consistent differences between high and low education. Of all tobacco control policies of which the TCS is constructed, price policies showed the strongest association with quit ratios, followed by an advertising ban. Conclusion: Countries with more developed tobacco control policies have higher quit ratios than countries with less developed tobacco control policies. High and low educated smokers benefit about equally from the nationwide tobacco control policies.
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| 4. |
- Schaap, Maartje M, et al.
(författare)
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Female ever-smoking, education, emancipation and economic development in 19 European countries
- 2009
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Ingår i: Social Science and Medicine. - : Elsevier BV. - 0277-9536 .- 1873-5347. ; 68:7, s. 1271-1278
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Large differences in ever-smoking rates among women are found between countries and socio-economic groups. This study examined the socio-economic inequalities in female ever-smoking rates in 19 European countries, and explored the association between cross-national differences in these inequalities and economic development and women's emancipation. Data on smoking were derived from national health interview surveys from 19 European countries. For each country, age group (25-39, 40-59 and 60+ years), educational level (4 standard levels), and cumulative ever-smoking rates were calculated as the proportion of current and former smokers of the total survey population. A Relative Index of Inequality was estimated for women in the three age groups to measure the magnitude of educational differences. In regression analyses the association of ever-smoking rates of women age 25-39 years with the gross domestic product (GDP) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) was explored. Less educated women aged 25-39 years were more likely to have ever smoked than more educated women in all countries, except Portugal. In the age groups 40-59 years the educational pattern differed between countries. Women aged 60+ years who were less educated were less likely to have ever smoked in all countries, except Norway and England. The size of inequalities varied considerably between countries and reversed within three age groups. For women 25-39 years, the association of ever-smoking rates with GDP was positive, especially for more educated women. The association of ever-smoking rates with GEM was positive for less educated women, but negative for more educated women. The results are consistent with the idea that economic development and social-cultural processes related to gender empowerment have affected the diffusion of smoking in different ways for more and less educated women.
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| 5. |
- Turkenburg, Wim C, et al.
(författare)
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Renewable Energy Technologies
- 2000
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Ingår i: World energy assessment: energy and the challenge of sustainability. - 9211261260 ; , s. 219-272
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In 1998 renewable energy sources supplied 56 ± 10 exajoules,or about 14 percent of world primary energy consumption. Thesupply was dominated by traditional biomass (38 ± 10 exajoules a year. Other major contributions came from large hydropower (9 exajoules a year) and from modern biomass (7 exajoules). The contribution of all other renewables — small hydropower, geothermal, wind, solar, and marineenergy — was about 2 exajoules. That means that the energy supply from new renewables was about 9 exajoules (about 2 percent of world consumption). The commercial primary energy supply from renewable sources was 27 ± 6 exajoules (nearly 7 percent of world consumption), with 16 ± 6 exajoules from biomass. Renewable energy sources can meet many times the present world energy demand, so their potential is enormous. They can enhance diversity in energy supply markets, secure long-term sustainable energy supplies, and reduce local and global atmospheric emissions. They can also provide commercially attractive options to meet specific needs for energy services (particularly in developing countries and rural areas), create new employment opportunities, and offer possibilities for local manufacturing of equipment. There are many renewable technologies. Although often commerciallyavailable, most are still at an early stage of development and not technically mature. They demand continuing research, development, and demonstration efforts. In addition, few renewable energy technologies can compete with conventional fuels on cost, except in some niche markets. But substantial cost reductions can be achieved for most renewables, closing gaps and making them more competitive. That will require further technology development and market deployment — and boosting production capacities to mass production. For the long term and under very favourable conditions, the lowest cost to produce electricity might be $0.01–0.02 a kilowatt-hour for geothermal, $0.03 a kilowatt-hour for wind and hydro, $0.04 a kilowatt-hour for solar thermal and biomass, and $0.05–0.06 a kilowatt-hour for photovoltaics and marine currents. The lowest cost to produce heat might be $0.005 a kilowatt-hour for geothermal, $0.01 a kilowatt-hour for biomass, and $0.02–0.03 a kilowatt-hour for solar thermal. The lowest cost to produce fuels might be $1.5 a gigajoule for biomass, $6–7 a gigajoule for ethanol, $7–10 a gigajoule for methanol, and $6–8 a gigajoule for hydrogen. Scenarios investigating the potential of renewables reveal that they might contribute 20–50 percent of energy supplies in the second half of the 21st century. A transition to renewables-based energy systems would have to rely on: Successful development and diffusion of renewable energy technologies that become more competitive through cost reductions from technological and organisational developments. Political will to internalise environmental costs and other externalities that permanently increase fossil fuel prices. Many countries have found ways to promote renewables. As renewable energy activities grow and require more funding, the tendency in many countries is to move away from methods that let taxpayers carry the burden of promoting renewables, towards economic and regulatory methods that let energy consumers carry the burden.
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| 6. |
- Van der Heyden, J H A, et al.
(författare)
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Socioeconomic inequalities in lung cancer mortality in 16 European populations.
- 2009
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Ingår i: Lung Cancer. - : Elsevier BV. - 0169-5002 .- 1872-8332. ; 63:3, s. 322-330
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Important socioeconomic inequalities exist in lung cancer mortality in Europe. They are consistent with the geographical spread of the smoking epidemic. In the next decades socioeconomic inequalities in lung cancer mortality are likely to persist and even increase among women. In Southern European countries we may expect a reversal from a positive to a negative association between socioeconomic status and lung cancer mortality. Continuous efforts are necessary to tackle socioeconomic inequalities in lung cancer mortality in all European countries.
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