| 1. |
- Holmquist, Hanna, 1982, et al.
(författare)
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Implementing a life cycle perspective in chemical alternatives assessment - the case of per- an polyfluoroalkyl substances in textile applications
- 2018
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Informed chemical substitution is about eliminating chemicals that give rise to unacceptable (eco)toxicological risks, while avoiding problem shifting within a product’s or chemical’s life cycle, or between types of impacts. For this reason, the life cycle perspective becomes crucial. Chemical alternatives assessment (CAA) has been increasingly in focus in the last years, and life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle thinking are part of the more comprehensive CAA methods available. However, more detailed guidance is lacking and few practical examples have been published. A substitution case of current relevance is the phase-out of hazardous per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from durable water repellent (DWR) textile applications. Alternatives are sought which offer sustained technical performance but an improved environmental and human health profile compared to the hazardous PFAS. To support an informed substitution of hazardous PFAS, and complement our previous hazard assessment, we have conducted an LCA to compare environmental and human health impacts across DWR alternatives on a functional basis. Based on this case we were also able to further elaborate on the inclusion of the life cycle perspective in a CAA framework by identifying both possibilities and challenges. We conclude that the inclusion of a life cycle perspective in CAA is crucial for an informed and sustainable substitution, as lack of life cycle thinking can lead to problem shifting. We show that LCA, with its focus on function, is a tool that can identify such problem shifting as well as the key chemical properties to be considered. Consideration of (eco)toxicological effects in such an assessment can however turn out to be difficult, especially for substances such as the PFAS if they are outside the domain of the LCIA model. In the case under study here we conclude that the DWR should be selected with three main considerations: (i) the intrinsic hazard properties of the chemistry, selecting the DWR associated with the lowest hazard but, (ii) providing the functionality as needed and, (iii) giving the garment the longest life length.
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| 2. |
- Holmquist, Hanna, 1982, et al.
(författare)
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Properties, performance and associated hazards of state-of-the-art durable water repellent (DWR) chemistry for textile finishing
- 2016
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Ingår i: Environment International. - : Elsevier BV. - 0160-4120 .- 1873-6750. ; 91, s. 251-264
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- Following the phase-out of long-chain per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), the textile industry had to find alternatives for side-chain fluorinated polymer based durable water repellent (DWR) chemistries that incorporated long perfluoroalkyl side chains. This phase-out and subsequent substitution with alternatives has resulted in a market where both fluorinated and non-fluorinated DWRs are available. These DWR alternatives can be divided into four broad groups that reflect their basic chemistry: side-chain fluorinated polymers, silicones, hydrocarbons and other chemistries (including dendrimer and inorganic nanoparticle chemistries). In this critical review, the alternative DWRs are assessed with regard to their structural properties and connected performance, loss and degradation processes resulting in diffuse environmental emissions, and hazard profiles for selected emitted substances. Our review shows that there are large differences in performance between the alternative DWRs, most importantly the lack of oil repellency of non-fluorinated alternatives. It also shows that for all alternatives, impurities and / or degradation products of the DWR chemistries are diffusively emitted to the environment. Our hazard ranking suggests that hydrocarbon based DWR is the most environmentally benign, followed by silicone and side-chain fluorinated polymer-based DWR chemistries. Industrial commitments to reduce the levels of impurities in silicone based and side-chain fluorinated polymer based DWR formulations will lower the actual risks. There is a lack of information on the hazards associated with DWRs, in particular for the dendrimer and inorganic nanoparticle chemistries, and these data gaps must be filled. Until environmentally safe alternatives, which provide the required performance, are available our recommendation is to choose DWR chemistry on a case-by-case basis, always weighing the benefits connected to increased performance against the risks to the environment and human health.
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| 3. |
- Holmquist, Hanna, 1982, et al.
(författare)
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What difference can drop-in substitution actually make? : A life cycle assessment of alternative water repellent chemicals
- 2021
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Ingår i: Journal of Cleaner Production. - : Elsevier Ltd. - 0959-6526 .- 1879-1786. ; 329
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are used in durable water repellents (DWRs) on outdoor garments and manufacturers are currently phasing out hazardous PFASs. A critical question is: which alternatives should be chosen? The answer should depend on a holistic assessment, but the published inventory data and methodological guidance for assessing PFAS in products is slim and typically limited to hazard assessment. We aim to provide a holistic assessment of the potential environmental consequences of this phase out of DWRs, going beyond the more traditional hazard-focused substitution assessment to also include a broad life-cycle-based assessment of PFASs and their drop-in alternatives. In this study, potential environmental consequences of the phase out were evaluated by applying a life cycle assessment (LCA) to shell jackets with side-chain fluorinated polymer based (i.e., PFASs) or non-fluorinated alternative DWRs with the aim to support a substitution assessment. We demonstrated an innovative approach to impact assessment by inclusion of PFAS related fate and toxicity and invested effort towards contributing new primary inventory data by using a combination of industry dialogue and performance measurements from our larger project context. From a methodological point of view, this paper demonstrates the state-of-the-art in product LCA of persistent textile chemicals and identifies the current limits of this assessment approach. It also delivers new LCI data of use to other analysts. The LCA results in this paper suggest that jackets without PFASs are environmentally preferable. Potential problem shifting due to increased washing and reimpregnation of the jackets did not outweigh PFAS-related potential toxicity impacts as indicated by LCA results. Based on the results presented here, specific DWRs within the non-fluorinated DWR group could not be identified as preferable to others. This LCA does however provide a relevant starting point for more detailed studies on specific DWR systems and it supports moves to phase-out PFASs from non-essential DWR uses. © 2021 The Authors
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| 4. |
- Liagkouridis, Ioannis, et al.
(författare)
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Combined Use of Total Fluorine and Oxidative Fingerprinting for Quantitative Determination of Side-Chain Fluorinated Polymers in Textiles
- 2022
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Ingår i: Environmental Science and Technology Letters. - : American Chemical Society. - 2328-8930. ; 9:1, s. 30-
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Given their extensive production volumes and potential to form persistent perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), there is concern surrounding the ongoing use of side-chain fluorinated polymers (SFPs) in consumer products. Targeted SFP quantification relies on matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, which can suffer from poor accuracy and high detection limits. Alternatively, total fluorine (TF)-based methods may be used, but these approaches report concentrations on a "fluorine equivalent"basis (e.g., fluorine per square meter in the case of textiles) and are incapable of elucidating structure or chain length. Here a new method for comprehensive characterization of SFPs is presented, which makes use of the total oxidizable precursor assay for fingerprint-based structural elucidation and combustion ion chromatography for TF quantification. When used in parallel, quantitative determination of SFPs (in units of mass of CnF2n+1 per square meter of textile) is achieved. Expressing SFP concentrations in terms of the mass of the side chain (as opposed to fluorine equivalents) facilitates estimation of both the structure and quantity of PFAA degradation products. As a proof of principle, the method was applied to six unknown SFP-coated medical textiles from Sweden. Four products contained C6-fluorotelomer-based SFPs (concentration range of 36-188 mg of C6F13/m2), one contained a C4-sulfonamide-based SFP (718 mg of C4F9/m2), and one contained a C8-fluorotelomer-based SFP (249 mg of C8F17/m2). © 2021 The Authors.
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| 5. |
- Rensmo, Amanda, et al.
(författare)
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Lithium-ion battery recycling : a source of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) to the environment?
- 2023
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Ingår i: Environmental Science. - : Royal Society of Chemistry. - 2050-7887 .- 2050-7895. ; 25:6, s. 1015-
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Recycling of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is a rapidly growing industry, which is vital to address the increasing demand for metals, and to achieve a sustainable circular economy. Relatively little information is known about the environmental risks posed by LIB recycling, in particular with regards to the emission of persistent (in)organic fluorinated chemicals. Here we present an overview on the use of fluorinated substances - in particular per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) - in state-of-the-art LIBs, along with recycling conditions which may lead to their formation and/or release to the environment. Both organic and inorganic fluorinated substances are widely reported in LIB components, including the electrodes and binder, electrolyte (and additives), and separator. Among the most common substances are LiPF6 (an electrolyte salt), and the polymeric PFAS polyvinylidene fluoride (used as an electrode binder and a separator). Currently the most common LIB recycling process involves pyrometallurgy, which operates at high temperatures (up to 1600 °C), sufficient for PFAS mineralization. However, hydrometallurgy, an increasingly popular alternative recycling approach, operates under milder temperatures (<600 °C), which could favor incomplete degradation and/or formation and release of persistent fluorinated substances. This is supported by the wide range of fluorinated substances detected in bench-scale LIB recycling experiments. Overall, this review highlights the need to further investigate emissions of fluorinated substances during LIB recycling and suggests that substitution of PFAS-based materials (i.e. during manufacturing), or alternatively post-treatments and/or changes in process conditions may be required to avoid formation and emission of persistent fluorinated substances.
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| 6. |
- Roos, Sandra, 1977, et al.
(författare)
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A Function‐Based Approach for Life Cycle Management of Chemicals in the Textile Industry
- 2020
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Ingår i: Sustainability. - : MDPI AG. - 2071-1050. ; 12:1273, s. 1-14
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Consumer products such as clothes and footwear sometimes contain chemical substances with properties that pose a risk to human health and the environment. These substances, restricted by law or company policy, are in focus for chemicals management processes by textile retailers. However, complex and non‐transparent supply chains, and limited chemical knowledge, makes chemicals management challenging. Therefore, a function‐based approach for life cycle management (LCM) of chemicals was developed, based on results of previous projects and evaluated using a two‐step Delphi process. The resulting approach aims to help retailers identify and substitute hazardous substances in products, and consists of three parts: (i) a function‐based chemicals management concept model for different levels of chemical information within the supply chain, (ii) tools for non‐chemists which explain chemical information, and (iii) a continuous provision of knowledge to stakeholders (e.g., retailers) in a network. This approach is successfully implemented by over 100 retailers in the Nordic countries, providing the textile industry with practical and robust tools to manage and substitute hazardous chemicals in products and production processes. We conclude that the developed approach provides an explicit link, communication, and knowledge sharing between actors in the supply chain, which has proven important in chemicals LCM.
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| 7. |
- Schellenberger, Steffen, 1981-, et al.
(författare)
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An Outdoor Aging Study to Investigate the Release of Per- And Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) from Functional Textiles
- 2022
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Ingår i: Environmental Science and Technology. - : American Chemical Society. - 0013-936X .- 1520-5851. ; 56, s. 3471-
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The emission of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from functional textiles was investigated via an outdoor weathering experiment in Sydney, Australia. Polyamide (PA) textile fabrics treated with different water-repellent, side-chain fluorinated polymers (SFPs) were exposed on a rooftop to multiple natural stressors, including direct sunlight, precipitation, wind, and heat for 6-months. After weathering, additional stress was applied to the fabrics through abrasion and washing. Textile characterization using a multiplatform analytical approach revealed loss of both PFAS-containing textile fragments (e.g., microfibers) as well as formation and loss of low molecular weight PFAS, both of which occurred throughout weathering. These changes were accompanied by a loss of color and water repellency of the textile. The potential formation of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) from mobile residuals was quantified by oxidative conversion of extracts from unweathered textiles. Each SFP-textile finish emitted a distinct PFAA pattern following weathering, and in some cases the concentrations exceeded regulatory limits for textiles. In addition to transformation of residual low molecular weight PFAA-precursors, release of polymeric PFAS from degradation and loss of textile fibers/particles contributed to overall PFAS emissions during weathering. © 2022 The Authors.
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| 8. |
- Schellenberger, Steffen, et al.
(författare)
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Facing the rain after the phase out : Performance evaluation of alternative fluorinated and non-fluorinated durable water repellents for outdoor fabrics
- 2018
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Ingår i: Chemosphere. - : Elsevier BV. - 0045-6535 .- 1879-1298. ; 193, s. 675-684
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Fluorinated durable water repellent (DWR) agents are used to obtain water and stain repellent textiles. Due to the on-going phase-out of DWRs based on side-chain fluorinated polymers (SFP) with long perfluoroalkyl chains, the textile industry lacks suitable alternatives with comparable material characteristics. The constant development and optimization of SFPs for textile applications initiated more than half a century ago has resulted in a robust and very efficient DWR technology and textiles with exceptional hydro- and oleophobic properties. The industry is now in the predicament that the long-chain SFPs with the best technical performance have undesirable toxicological and environmental behavior. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the technical performance of presently available fluorinated and non-fluorinated DWRs as part of a chemical alternatives assessment (CAA). The results are based on a study with synthetic outdoor fabrics treated with alternative DWRs and tested for repellency using industrial standard and complementary methods. Using this approach, the complex structure-property relationships of DWR polymers could be explained on a molecular level. Both short chain SFPs and non-fluorinated DWRs showed excellent water repellency and durability in some cases while short-chain SFPs were more robust of the alternatives to long-chain SFPs. A strong decline in oil repellency and durability with perfluoroalkyl chain length was shown for SFP DWRs. Non-fluorinated alternatives
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| 9. |
- Schellenberger, Steffen, et al.
(författare)
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Highly fluorinated chemicals in functional textiles can be replaced by re-evaluating liquid repellency and end-user requirements
- 2019
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Ingår i: Journal of Cleaner Production. - : Elsevier Ltd. - 0959-6526 .- 1879-1786. ; 217, s. 134-143
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Ongoing regulation of, and concerns regarding, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (also popularly known as “highly fluorinated chemicals”), has driven the textile market to search for sustainable alternative chemistries that can provide similar liquid repellency to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in performance textiles. This paper aims to inform the potential substitution of fluorochemicals with more environmentally friendly durable water repellents, taking a case-by-case approach and evaluating protection needs for consumer outdoor clothing and medical protective clothing separately. Recently developed non-fluorinated durable water repellents, some based on green chemistry principles, were evaluated in an in-depth assessment for their functionality against fluorinated short-chain alternatives (with hydro-and oleophobic moieties of carbon chain length of six or less). Repellency towards water and non-polar liquids was evaluated with established standard test methods and by measuring the roll-off angle of liquid droplets with a novel sample holder setup. This improved method allowed an enhanced mechanistic understanding of the droplets’ roll-off processes on woven textiles. The best non-fluorinated alternatives demonstrated high water repellency equal to fluorinated side-chain polymers with ‘short’ fluorinated carbon chains ≤6 carbons, and should be considered as suitable substitutes for consumer outdoor clothing. These results are supported by a survey of end-use requirements indicating water repellency and durability were the most important purchasing criteria. For polar liquids, with lower surface tensions, the repellency provided by non-fluorinated alternatives was clearly reduced, although they had a moderate repellency towards liquids with intermediate polarity (e.g. red wine or synthetic blood). Only fluorinated side-chain polymers with ‘short’ fluorinated carbon chains ≤6 carbons were seen to provide sufficient protection to polar liquids with very low surface tension (olive oil or gastric fluid). Since occupational protective clothing (e.g. medical clothing) often must provide protection against liquid of a wider range of polarities (e.g. in the case of medical clothing, to bodily fluids and protect the wearer from the transmission of diseases), current non-fluorinated DWRs do not provide sufficient liquid repellency. This implies that innovations in textile technology are still needed to substitute PFASs in some types of occupational protective clothing and other end uses where oil and stain repellency is essential.
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| 10. |
- Schellenberger, Steffen, et al.
(författare)
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Performance and hazard assessment of fluorinated and non-fluorinated state-of-the-art DWR-polymers
- 2016
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Ingår i: SETAC Nantes 2016.
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Durable water repellent (DWR) impregnation is applied in textile finishing to impart water and, depending on impregnation chemicals, oil and stain resistance to textiles. Following the phase-out of the mosteffective and predominating DWR-technology based on long-chain perand polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), the textile industry had to find suitable alternatives. This phase-out has resulted in a market where bothfluorinated and non-fluorinated DWRs are available, dividable into three broad groups: short chain PFAS-based, silicone-based and hydrocarbonbased polymers. During our research in the SUPFES (Substitution of prioritised poly- and perfluorinated chemicals to eliminate diffusesources) project, the alternative DWRs were assessed with regards to: (i)their structural properties and connected performance, (ii) loss and degradation processes resulting in diffuse environmental emissions, and (iii) hazard profile for selected emitted substances. We worked withDWR-chemistry and raw material producers to appropriately treat two commercially relevant types of fabrics with the DWR alternative chemistries (fluorinated and non-fluorinated). We compared the performance of the treated fabrics developed in the project by testing the following properties using industrial standardised methods: generalproperties, physical properties, DWR properties and tabilities of properties considering relevant stress- parameters. We demonstrated that non-fluorinated alternatives can have a competitive water repellency incomparison to short-chain PFAS substitutes, but that they lack oil repellence. We further estimated possible loss mechanisms for impurities and/or degradation products from DWR-treated fabrics and conducted a hazard assessment for relevant chemicals based on data available in the literature. Our hazard ranking suggests that hydrocarbonbasedpolymers are the most environmentally benign, followed bysilicone- and fluorocarbon-based polymers. Future work will include risk assessment and life cycle assessments (LCA) to estimate long-term advantages and disadvantages of the different DWR-technologies.
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