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| 2. |
- Burchardt, Steffi, et al.
(författare)
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Erupted frothy xenoliths may explain lack of country-rock fragments in plutons
- 2016
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Ingår i: Scientific Reports. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 2045-2322. ; 6
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Magmatic stoping is discussed to be a main mechanism of magma emplacement. As a consequence of stoping, abundant country-rock fragments should occur within, and at the bottom of, magma reservoirs as "xenolith graveyards", or become assimilated. However, the common absence of sufficient amounts of both xenoliths and crustal contamination have led to intense controversy about the efficiency of stoping. Here, we present new evidence that may explain the absence of abundant country-rock fragments in plutons. We report on vesiculated crustal xenoliths in volcanic rocks that experienced devolatilisation during heating and partial melting when entrained in magma. We hypothesise that the consequential inflation and density decrease of the xenoliths allowed them to rise and become erupted instead of being preserved in the plutonic record. Our thermomechanical simulations of this process demonstrate that early-stage xenolith sinking can be followed by the rise of a heated, partially-molten xenolith towards the top of the reservoir. There, remnants may disintegrate and mix with resident magma or erupt. Shallow-crustal plutons emplaced into hydrous country rocks may therefore not necessarily contain evidence of the true amount of magmatic stoping during their emplacement. Further studies are needed to quantify the importance of frothy xenolith in removing stoped material.
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| 3. |
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| 4. |
- Burchardt, Steffi, et al.
(författare)
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Sinking of anhydrite blocks within a Newtonian salt diapir : modelling the influence of block aspect ratio and salt stratification
- 2012
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Ingår i: Geophysical Journal International. - 0956-540X .- 1365-246X. ; 188:3, s. 763-778
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- 2-D Finite Differences models are used to analyse the strain produced by gravity-driven sinking of dense rectangular inclusions through homogeneous and vertically stratified Newtonian salt. We systematically modelled the descent of dense blocks of different sizes and initial orientations (aspect ratios) representing the Main Anhydrite fragments documented within, for example, the Gorleben salt diapir. Model results demonstrate that size of the blocks is a governing parameter which dictates the amount of strain produced within the block and in the surrounding host salt. Initial block orientation (aspect ratio), on the other hand, causes fundamental differences in block deformation, while the resulting structures produced in the salt are principally the same in all models with homogeneous salt, covering shear zones and folding of passive markers. In models with vertically stratified salt with different viscosities, block descent takes place along complex paths. This results from greater strain accommodation by the salt formation with the lowest viscosity and an asymmetrical distribution of initial vertical shear stresses around the block. Consequently, in these models, block strain is lower compared with the models with homogeneous salt (for the same viscosity as the high-viscosity salt), and sinking is accompanied by block rotation. The latter causes diapir-scale disturbance of the pre-sinking salt stratigraphy and complex sinking paths of the blocks. In particular, vertically oriented blocks sink into high-viscosity salt and drag with them some low-viscosity salt, while horizontal blocks sink in the low-viscosity salt. The resultant sinking velocities vary strongly depending on the sinking path of the block. Based on model results and observed structural configuration within the Gorleben salt diapir, we conclude that the internal complexity of a salt diapir governs its post-ascent deformation. Salt structure and its interaction with dense blocks should hence be considered in the assessment of the long-term stability of storage sites for hazardous waste.
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| 5. |
- Burchardt, Steffi, et al.
(författare)
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Strain pattern within and around denser blocks sinking within Newtonian salt structures
- 2011
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Ingår i: Journal of Structural Geology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0191-8141 .- 1873-1201. ; 33:2, s. 145-153
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Blocks of dense material, such as anhydrite, entrained in salt structures have been proposed to sink through their host material. Here, we present the results of numerical models that analyse strain patterns within and around initially horizontal anhydrite blocks (viscosity 10(21) Pa s) sinking through Newtonian salt with a viscosity of 10(17) Pa s. In addition, the influence of the block aspect ratio (thickness to width ratio; AR) is analysed. The model results show that the blocks are folded and marginally sheared to approach streamlined shapes. The effectiveness of this process is a function of the block AR and influences the sinking velocity of the blocks significantly. Final sinking velocities are in the range of ca. 1.7 -3.1 mm/a. Around the block in the salt, an array of folds and shear zones develops during block descent, the structure of which is principally the same independent of the block AR. However, the size and development of the structures is a function of the block size. Monitoring of strain magnitudes demonstrates that the salt is subject to extremely high strains with successively changing stress regimes, resulting in closely-spaced zones of high adjacent to low strain. In comparison to the anhydrite blocks, strain magnitudes in the salt are up to one order of magnitude higher.
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| 6. |
- Burchardt, Steffi, et al.
(författare)
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The influence of viscosity contrasts on the strain pattern and magnitude within and around dense blocks sinking through Newtonian salt
- 2012
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Ingår i: Journal of Structural Geology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0191-8141 .- 1873-1201. ; 35, s. 102-116
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Dense inclusions in salt cover a wide range of materials and therefore material properties, depending on their origin. We have modelled the deformation associated with gravity-driven sinking of horizontal, initially rectangular blocks of dense material through Newtonian salt. Our two-dimensional Finite Differences models analyse the influence and interaction of two parameters: (1) the size, i.e. the aspect ratio (AR), of the block and (2) the viscosity contrast between the salt and the more viscous block over four orders of magnitude. The results demonstrate that during gravity-driven sinking the blocks are folded and sheared. The strain magnitude within the block increases with increasing block AR and decreases with increasing viscosity contrast. Sinking velocities of the blocks are in the range of <2 and >6 mm a−1 and are a function of block and salt deformation that depend on the block mass and AR, as well as on the viscosity contrast. Salt deformation is characterised by the development of an array of characteristic structures that include folds and shear zones, as well as a zone characterised by extreme vertical stretching above the block, termed entrainment channel. Strain in the salt is locally more than two orders of magnitude higher than in the block and increases with increasing block AR and viscosity contrast. Salt deformation is distributed in closely-spaced high- and low-strain zones concentrated in the block vicinity and the entrainment channel.
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| 7. |
- Chemia, Zurab, 1979-
(författare)
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Modeling internal deformation of salt structures targeted for radioactive waste disposal
- 2008
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This thesis uses results of systematic numerical models to argue that externally inactive salt structures, which are potential targets for radioactive waste disposal, might be internally active due to the presence of dense layers or blocks within a salt layer.The three papers that support this thesis use the Gorleben salt diapir (NW Germany), which was targeted as a future final repository for high-grade radioactive waste, as a general guideline.The first two papers present systematic studies of the parameters that control the development of a salt diapir and how it entrains a dense anhydrite layer. Results from these numerical models show that the entrainment of a dense anhydrite layer within a salt diapir depends on four parameters: sedimentation rate, viscosity of salt, perturbation width and the stratigraphic location of the dense layer. The combined effect of these four parameters, which has a direct impact on the rate of salt supply (volume/area of the salt that is supplied to the diapir with time), shape a diapir and the mode of entrainment. Salt diapirs down-built with sedimentary units of high viscosity can potentially grow with an embedded anhydrite layer and deplete their source layer (salt supply ceases). However, when salt supply decreases dramatically or ceases entirely, the entrained anhydrite layer/segments start to sink within the diapir. In inactive diapirs, sinking of the entrained anhydrite layer is inevitable and strongly depends on the rheology of the salt, which is in direct contact with the anhydrite layer. During the post-depositional stage, if the effective viscosity of salt falls below the threshold value of around 1018-1019 Pa s, the mobility of anhydrite blocks might influence any repository within the diapir. However, the internal deformation of the salt diapir by the descending blocks decreases with increase in effective viscosity of salt.The results presented in this thesis suggest that it is highly likely that salt structures where dense and viscous layer/blocks are present undergo an internal deformation processes when these dense blocks start sinking within the diapir. Depending on size and orientation of these blocks, deformation pattern is significantly different within the diapir. Furthermore, model results applied to the Gorleben diapir show that the rate of descent of the entrained anhydrite blocks differs on different sides of the diapir. This suggests that if the anhydrite blocks descent within the Gorleben diapir, they initiate an asymmetric internal flow within it.
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| 8. |
- Fuchs, Lukas, et al.
(författare)
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A new numerical method to calculate inhomogeneous and time dependent large deformations of two-dimensional geodynamic flows with application to diapirism
- 2013
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Ingår i: Geophysical Journal International. - : Oxford University Press (OUP). - 0956-540X .- 1365-246X. ; 194:2, s. 623-639
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A key to understand many geodynamic processes is studying the associated large deformation fields. Finite deformation can be measured in the field by using geological strain markers giving the logarithmic strain f = log 10(R), where R is the ellipticity of the strain ellipse. It has been challenging to accurately quantify finite deformation of geodynamic models for inhomogeneous and time-dependent large deformation cases. We present a new formulation invoking a 2-D marker-in-cell approach. Mathematically, one can describe finite deformation by a coordinate transformation to a Lagrangian reference frame. For a known velocity field the deformation gradient tensor, F, can be calculated by integrating the differential equation DtFij = LikFkj, where L is the velocity gradient tensor and Dt the Lagrangian derivative. The tensor F contains all information about the minor and major semi-half axes and orientation of the strain ellipse and the rotation. To integrate the equation centrally in time and space along a particle's path, we use the numerical 2-D finite difference code FDCON in combination with a marker-in-cell approach. For a sufficiently high marker density we can accurately calculate F for any 2-D inhomogeneous and time-dependent creeping flow at any point for a deformation f up to 4. Comparison between the analytical and numerical solution for the finite deformation within a Poiseuille–Couette flow shows an error of less than 2 per cent for a deformation up to f = 1.7. Moreover, we determine the finite deformation and strain partitioning within Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities (RTIs) of different viscosity and layer thickness ratios. These models provide a finite strain complement to the RTI benchmark of van Keken et al. Large finite deformation of up to f = 4 accumulates in RTIs within the stem and near the compositional boundaries. Distinction between different stages of diapirism shows a strong correlation between a maximum occurring deformation of f = 1, 3 and 4, and the early, intermediate and late stages of diapirism, respectively. Furthermore, we find that the overall strain of a RTI is concentrated in the less viscous regions. Thus, spatial distributions and magnitudes of finite deformation may be used to identify stages and viscosity ratios of natural cases.
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| 9. |
- Fuchs, Lukas, et al.
(författare)
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Numerical modeling of the effect of composite rheology on internal deformation in down-built diapirs.
- 2015
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Ingår i: Tectonophysics. - : Elsevier BV. - 0040-1951 .- 1879-3266. ; 646, s. 79-95
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A two-dimensional finite difference code (FDCON) is used to estimate the progressive deformation and the effect of a composite rheology, i.e., Newtonian combined with non-Newtonian, on finite deformation patterns within a down-built diapir. The geometry of the diapir is fixed using two rigid rectangular overburden units which sink into a source layer of a certain viscosity. We have analyzed the progressive deformation within the entire salt layer for a composite rheology and compared them to a standard model with Newtonian rheology (ηs = 1018 Pa s). The composite rheology models show a more complex deformation patterns in comparison to the standard model. Deformation is more localized within the source layer, leaving a broader less deformed zone within the middle of the source layer. In comparison to the standard model, ellipticity (R) of the strain ellipse is amplified by a factor of up to three in high deformation regions with a finite deformation f larger than two (f = log10(R)). Initially vertical and horizontal passive marker-lines within the salt layer, are folded during salt movement. Initially horizontally-oriented marker-lines in the source layer show upright folds within the middle of the stem. Within the source layer, initially vertical marker-lines form recumbent folds, which are refolded during their flow from the source layer into the stem. During their refolding, the hinge of the fold migrates outward towards the flank of the diapir. A temporal and spatial hinge migration is observed for sub-horizontal folds that originated in the source layer as they are refolded. We have also studied both the effect of curved versus sharp corners between the source layer and the stem on strain evolution within both the feeding source layer and the down-built diapir. Strain evolution and hinge migration are strongly influenced by the geometry of the corner between the source layer and the stem.
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| 10. |
- Fuchs, Lukas, et al.
(författare)
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Numerical modeling on progressive internal deformation indown-built diapirs
- 2014
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Ingår i: Tectonophysics. - : Elsevier. - 0040-1951 .- 1879-3266. ; 632, s. 111-122
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A two-dimensional finite difference code (FDCON) is used to estimate the finite deformationwithin a down-builtdiapir. The geometry of the down-built diapir is fixed by using two rigid rectangular overburden unitswhich sinkinto a source layer of a constant viscosity. Thus, the model refers to diapirs consisting of a source layerfeeding a vertical stem, and not to other salt structures (e.g. salt sheets or pillows). With this setup westudy the progressive strain in three different deformation regimes within the “salt” material: (I) a squeezedchannel-flow deformation regime and (II) a corner-flow deformation regime within the source layer, and(III) a pure channel-flow deformation regime within the stem. We analyze the evolution of finite deformationin each regime individually, progressive strain for particles passing all three regimes, and total 2Dfinite deformationwithin the salt layer. Model results show that the material which enters the stem bears inherited strainaccumulated from the other two domains. Therefore, finite deformation in the stem differs from the expectedchannel-flow deformation, due to the deformation accumulated within the source layer. The stem displays ahigh deformation zone within its center and areas of decreasing progressive strain between its center and itsboundaries.High deformation zoneswithin the stemcould also be observedwithin natural diapirs (e.g. Klodowa,Polen). The location and structure of the high deformation zone (e.g. symmetric or asymmetric) could revealinformation about different rates of salt supplies from the source layer. Thus, deformation pattern could directlybe correlated to the evolution of the diapir.
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