| 1. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Catching Up with the West: Chinese Pathways to the Global Middle Class
- 2020
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Ingår i: The China Journal. - : University of Chicago Press. - 1324-9347 .- 1835-8535. ; 84:1, s. 102-127
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Using nationwide household survey data for 2002 and 2013, we investigate how widely Chinese household incomes had caught up to those of the middle class in the developed worldby 2013, the year Xi Jinping came to power. Based on the living standards of the middle-income class in the European Union as our standard of comparison, we estimate that China’s “global middle class” with a similar living standard grew rapidly after 2002, reaching 254 million in 2013. We project that it had grown further to over 450 million by 2018. We describe the characteristics of this middle class, which is predominately urban, largely resides in China’s eastern region, and mainly depends on a wage income. A distinct business middle class exists but is relatively small. Analysis of the chances of attaining a middle-class income reveals the importance of an individual’s circumstances at birth. Parents’ education and occupation matter, and being born with an urban registration (hukou) provides a large advantage. For those born with a rural hukou, the most effective pathways to the middle class are migration and, if possible, obtaining an urban hukou.
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| 2. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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China's Emerging Global Middle Class
- 2017
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Ingår i: The latest changes of income distribution pattern in China - A study on the income distribution of Chinese residents (V). - Beijing, Kina : China Financial & Economic Publishing House.. - 9787509578971 ; , s. 351-385
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This chapter seeks to throw new light on the emergence of the Chinese economic middle class using data from the China Household Income Project from 2002, 2007, and 2013. We find that between 2002 and 2013 China’s income distribution was transformed from a pyramid shape, with a majority having rather low income, to a more olive shape, as the middle class emerged. Defining “middle class” as having an income high enough not to be regarded as poor but also low enough not to be regarded as rich if living in a high-income country, we find that the share of China’s population that was middle class was extremely small in 2002, larger but still less than 10 percent in 2007, but it expanded rapidly from 2007 to 2013 to become one-fifth of China’s population, equivalent to roughly 250 million people. China’s middle class remains largely urban and is concentrated in the East; only a small minority of rural households and of rural migrants living in urban areas is middle class. We use simulations to investigate whether the growth of China’s middle class reflects across-the-board income growth versus a redistribution of income to the middle, and to project growth in the size of the middle class to 2020. If all household incomes grow uniformly by 6.5 percent per annum to 2020, then China’s middle class will almost double in size and in 2020 a majority of urban residents, but only 13 percent of rural residents, will be classified as middle class. We examine the characteristics of China’s middle class and find it to be distinctive in terms of its sources of income, location of residence, savings and consumption patterns, education, and Communist Party membership.
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| 3. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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China's Emerging Global Middle Class
- 2020
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Ingår i: Changing Trends in China's Inequality; Evidence, Analysis and Prospects. - Oxford : Oxford University Press. - 9780190077938 ; , s. 75-108
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This chapter seeks to throw new light on the emergence of the Chinese economic middle class using data from the China Household Income Project from 2002, 2007, and 2013. We find that between 2002 and 2013 China’s income distribution was transformed from a pyramid shape, with a majority having rather low income, to a more olive shape, as the middle class emerged. Defining “middle class” as having an income high enough not to be regarded as poor but also low enough not to be regarded as rich if living in a high-income country, we find that the share of China’s population that was middle class was extremely small in 2002, larger but still less than 10 percent in 2007, but it expanded rapidly from 2007 to 2013 to become one-fifth of China’s population, equivalent to roughly 250 million people. China’s middle class remains largely urban and is concentrated in the East; only a small minority of rural households and of rural migrants living in urban areas is middle class. We use simulations to investigate whether the growth of China’s middle class reflects across-the-board income growth versus a redistribution of income to the middle, and to project growth in the size of the middle class to 2020. If all household incomes grow uniformly by 6.5 percent per annum to 2020, then China’s middle class will almost double in size and in 2020 a majority of urban residents, but only 13 percent of rural residents, will be classified as middle class. We examine the characteristics of China’s middle class and find it to be distinctive in terms of its sources of income, location of residence, savings and consumption patterns, education, and Communist Party membership.
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| 4. |
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| 5. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Income Inequality and Spatial Differences in China
- 2020
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Ingår i: Research on China’s Income Distribution and Labor Market (Vol.1, Ch.17). - Beijing, P R China : China Human Resources & Social Security Publishing Group Co., Ltd. - 9787516743171 ; , s. 405-431
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)
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| 6. |
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| 7. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Inequality and Public Policyin China: Issues and Trends
- 2008
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Ingår i: Inequality and Public Policy in China. Editors: Björn Gustafsson, Li Shi and Terry Sicular. - 9780521870450 ; , s. 1-34
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)
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| 8. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Kinas framväxande globala medelklass
- 2019
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Ingår i: Ekonomisk Debatt. - 0345-2646. ; 47:6, s. 31-42
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Tidskriftsartikel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Kinas inkomstfördelning har förändrats från formen av en pyramid med många låginkomsttagare till att mer anta formen av en oliv genom att en medelklass vuxit fram. Vi definierar ”medelklass” som att ha en inkomst tillräckligt hög för att inte betraktas som fattig men heller inte rik om personen hade levt i ett höginkomstland. Mycket få personer i Kina var medelklass 2002, men antalet hade ökat till 250 miljoner år 2013, vilket motsvarar en femtedel av landets befolkning. Vi prognostiserar att medelklassen kommer att nästan ha fördubblats år 2020. Därtill undersöker vi vad som karaktäriserar medelklassen och finner många distinkta drag.
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| 9. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Kinas medelklass har i stor utsträckning vuxit upp i städerna och får sina inkomster genom lönearbete
- 2020
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Ingår i: Ekonomisk Debatt. - 0345-2646. ; 48:1, s. 53-55
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Tidskriftsartikel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Genom sin storlek har den kinesiska ekonomins mycket snabba tillväxt högst betydande konsekvenser utanför landets gränser. Det handlar inte bara om strikt ekonomisk påverkan. Därför är det inte förvånande att det i Kinas omvärld pågår diskussioner om hur den kinesiska utmaningen bäst bör mötas. Hur har Kinas medelklass rekryterats? Hur är medelklasshushållens inkomster sammansatta?
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| 10. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Polarisering i Mitttens rike - Standardhöjning, ekonomiska klyftor och fattigdom i Kina
- 2007
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Ingår i: Ekonomisk Debatt. - 0345-2646. ; 35:7, s. 56-67
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Tidskriftsartikel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Kinas ekonomi fortsätter att växa i mycket hög takt och landet har urbaniserats fort. Många hushåll kan åtnjuta en högre konsumtion än tidigare. Samtidigt finne en allmän föreställnng om att tillväxtens frukter inte är jämnt eller rättvist fördelade och att nya försörjningsrisker har upstått. Fördelningsfrågor har kommit att bli heta frågor bland allmänhet, bedömmare och styrande politiker. I denna uppsats presenteras ny forskningsom kasterljus över problematiken.
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