| 1. |
- Granhag, Pär-Anders, 1964, et al.
(författare)
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'I saw the man who killed Anna Lindh!': A case study of witnesses' offender descriptions
- 2013
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Ingår i: Psychology, Crime and Law. - 1068-316X. ; 19:10, s. 921-931
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- An archival study was conducted using offender descriptions reported to the police by witnesses (N=29) of the murder of Swedish Foreign Minister Anna Lindh in 2003. All descriptions had been collected within a month after the attack, and each witness had been interviewed between one and five times. Description accuracy was established using photographs of the perpetrator, captured by CCTV cameras minutes before the attack. Contrasting previous archival studies, offender descriptions were quite unreliable (42% of reported attributes were incorrect), and this pattern held for both basic features (e.g., height, age) and more detailed attributes (e.g., clothes). The completeness and accuracy of descriptions increased after (vs. before) images of the perpetrator had been published in the media, but only with regard to the perpetrators’ clothes. We acknowledge the potential effects of co-witness influence and post-event information.
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| 2. |
- Alfredsson, Helen, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Beliefs about intimate partner violence: A survey of the Swedish general public
- 2013
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Ingår i: the 23rd conference of the European Association of Psychology and Law, Coventry, England.
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Intimate partner violence (IPV) strikes thousands of victims every year. The public works as IPV victims’ immediate support system, yet we know little about public perceptions of IPV. By using a Swedish community sample (N = 650) beliefs about prevalence, victims’ responsibility, and viable means of interventions were assessed. Respondents believed psychological violence to be the most frequent type of abuse, striking in general 24 % of all Swedish intimate relationships. Low income takers, non-European inhabitants, people resident in suburban areas were identified as especially vulnerable groups. Perceptions of type of abuse were contingent to offender gender, where male offenders were considered to use mainly physical violence, as opposed to female offenders who were considered to abuse psychologically. Moderate levels of victim blame were reported and male respondents held victims responsible for the violence to a larger extent than female respondents. Eight out of ten respondents suggested at least one viable mean of intervention, however, type of interventions were limited. Findings were discussed in contrast to statistics of IPV incidences and future implications were suggested.
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| 3. |
- Alfredsson, Helen, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Beliefs about intimate partner violence: A survey of the Swedish general public
- 2016
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Ingår i: Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. - : Wiley. - 0036-5564 .- 1467-9450. ; 57:1, s. 57-64
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Public interventions are considered to be an important means of preventing intimate partner violence (IPV). What people believe about the nature of IPV is likely to determine their propensity to intervene, but little is known at present about IPV beliefs among the general public. In a survey of 650 Swedish citizens, beliefs about the prevalence and causes of IPV, and viable means of intervention were assessed. Respondents estimated, on average, that IPV occurs in almost one quarter of all intimate relationships in Sweden, and that IPV is particularly prevalent in low-income groups, among non-European immigrants, in suburban areas, and in couples under the age of 50 years. Physical violence was believed to be the most frequent form of abuse in male offender–female victim cases, whereas psychological violence was considered most frequent in other combinations of offender and victim gender. Female respondents estimated a higher prevalence of IPV, attributed less blame to IPV victims, and suggested more means of intervention, than did male respondents. The findings are discussed in relation to empirical prevalence estimates, and implications are proposed.
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| 4. |
- Alfredsson, Helen, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Intimate partner violence: Beliefs and psychological predictors of the propensity to intervene
- 2013
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Ingår i: the 9th meeting of Nordic Network of Psychology and Law, Arhus, Denmark.
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- There is a public consensus that intimate partner violence (IPV) is unacceptable. Still, many people are reluctant to intervene personally. Even though public intervention is seen as one of the most important steps for the prevention of IPV, little research has focused on public beliefs about IPV and on intentions to intervene and what are predictors of the propensity to intervene against IPV. In this thesis public beliefs about IPV (Study 1) and possible predictors of propensity to intervene against IPV (Study 2) was investigated. In January of 2011 a web-based survey was distributed to 1 070 adults from the Swedish general population. The final response rate was 60.7% (N = 650). Results from the first study indicated that the respondents had fairly accurate beliefs about the prevalence of IPV. On the other hand, moderate levels of victim accountability indicated misbeliefs about victims’ responsibility for the violence. In addition, respondents provided narrow descriptions of viable means of intervention. Results from the second study showed that feeling personally obligated to intervene and experiencing negative emotions in relations to IPV might be especially important when forming intervention intentions. Moreover, viewing IPV to be a prevalent problem in society and being less inclined to see the offender as the primary problem solver predicted greater intentions to intervene. The current thesis contributes with valuable knowledge about factors that might facilitate or inhibit intentions to intervene against IPV. Such knowledge can be useful when designing information campaigns to increase public awareness and willingness to intervene.
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| 5. |
- Alfredsson, Helen, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Motivational and cognitive predictors of the propensity to intervene against intimate partner violence
- 2014
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Ingår i: Journal of Interpersonal Violence. - : SAGE Publications. - 0886-2605 .- 1552-6518. ; 29:10, s. 1877-1893
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A survey using a community-based sample (N = 650) was conducted to identify motivational and cognitive predictors of individuals’ propensity to intervene against intimate partner violence (IPV). A hierarchical regression analysis showed that motivational factors accounted for the greatest proportion of the variance in self-reported propensity. Specifically, personal norm (i.e., an individual’s felt obligation to intervene) was the strongest individual predictor, followed by affective response (i.e., the extent to which an individual responds to IPV with negative emotions). Although cognitive factors explained only a small portion of the variance, the propensity to intervene was significantly higher for respondents who perceived IPV as a prevalent issue and who did not view the perpetrator as responsible for the solution of IPV. The findings suggest that attempts to facilitate public intervention should target specific, rather than general, aspects of public norms and beliefs about IPV.
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| 6. |
- Alfredsson, Helen, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Psychometric assessment of scales measuring the individual propensity to intervene against intimate partner violence
- 2014
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Ingår i: International conference of EAPL (European Association of Psychology and Law).
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Public interventions against intimate partner violence (IPV) may be essential for the prevention of the problem. Yet, little research has focused on psychological barriers that prevent people from intervening. The objective of this study was to design and assess measurement instruments that accurately measure the levels of the individual propensity to intervene against IPV. Two cross-sectional studies were conducted using survey method. The two surveys were completed by 169 and 142 individuals, respectively, from the adult Swedish general population. To determine the latent factors of the scales, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed on the first data set, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the second data set. The EFA identified six scales: cause attribution (6 items), problem awareness (6 items), negative affective response (6 items), personal norms (4 items), social descriptive norms (7 items), and social prescriptive norms (7 items). In the CFA, there were no items with cross-loading onto multiple factors, supporting the distinctiveness of the measured constructs. Goodness-of-fit indices indicated that the factor solutions fit the data at acceptable levels (CFI = 0.97–0.99, RMSEA = 0.053–0.098). The reliability of the six scales ranged from acceptable to excellent (Cronbach’s alpha: 0.60–0.92). The results indicate that the scales target individual psychological barriers against intervening against IPV. The scales are brief and suitable for use in community efforts that aim to improve public interventions against intimate partner violence.
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| 7. |
- Alfredsson, Helen, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Public norms and beliefs as predictors of the propensity to intervene against Intimate Partner Violence
- 2012
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Ingår i: 12th European Association of Psychology and Law conference, 10-13 april, 2012, Nicosia, Cypern.
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- A survey using a community-based sample (N = 650) was conducted to identify motivational and cognitive predictors of individuals’ propensity to intervene against intimate partner violence (IPV). A hierarchical regression analysis showed that motivational factors accounted for the greatest proportion of the variance in self-reported propensity. Specifically, personal norm (i.e., an individual’s felt obligation to intervene) was the strongest individual predictor, followed by affective response (i.e., the extent to which an individual responds to IPV with negative emotions). Although cognitive factors were generally less predictive, the propensity to intervene was significantly higher for respondents who perceived IPV as a prevalent issue, who did not attribute IPV to societal causes, and who did not view the perpetrator as responsible for the solution of IPV. The findings suggest that attempts to facilitate public intervention should target specific, rather than general, aspects of public norms and beliefs about IPV.
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| 8. |
- Allwood, Carl Martin, 1952, et al.
(författare)
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The cognitive interview: Effects on the realism in witnesses confidence in their free recall
- 2004
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Ingår i: Paper presented at the 1st meeting of the Nordic Network for research on Psychology and Law (NNPL), Oslo, Norway..
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Using calibration methodology, this study compared the realism of witnesses confidence judgments of their own recall elicited in either the Cognitive Interview (CI) or the Structured Interview (SI). Participants were interviewed about their observations of a staged crime and returned two weeks later to assess their confidence in the statements. The CI, as in previous research, rendered a significantly higher number of correct recalled units compared with the SI. In both interview conditions the witnesses displayed a high level of accuracy and confidence, very good calibration, and very low overconfidence. No difference was found between the CI and SI in terms of calibration, under/overconfidence, or with respect to the witnesses estimations of the total number of correctly recalled items. It is suggested that the high realism found in these measures is due to the witnesses assessing their confidence in items they themselves had chosen to report.
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| 9. |
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| 10. |
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| 11. |
- Ask, Karl, 1978
(författare)
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A survey of police officers’ and prosecutors’ beliefs about crime victim behaviors
- 2008
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Ingår i: Paper presented at the 5th meeting of the Nordic Network for research on Psychology and Law, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Introduction and Aim: Due to the negative psychological impact of criminal victimization, an appropriate treatment of crime victims by professionals in the legal system is crucial for victims’ well-being and long-term recovery. A prerequisite for appropriate treatment is that professionals are equipped with accurate beliefs about crime victims. The present study sought to assess the existing beliefs. Method: A survey addressing beliefs about the behaviors and reactions of victims of violent crimes was conducted via web-based and mail questionnaires. In total, 211 police officers and 190 prosecutors in Sweden responded to the survey. Results: There were considerable differences in the expected behavioral display of different types of crime victims, with rape and domestic assault victims seen as particularly prone to expressive self-presentation and self-blame. Despite empirical evidence showing otherwise, most respondents thought that crime victims’ nonverbal and emotional expression is related to the truthfulness of their accounts. However, educational efforts appeared to have a corrective influence on such beliefs. The perceived prevalence of false reports differed across crime types, with rape and mugging receiving particularly high estimates. Police officers believed false reports to be more common than did prosecutors. Time constraints were seen, especially by prosecutors, as an impediment to appropriate treatment of crime victims. Conclusions: Although some reported beliefs were at odds with established research, respondents rightly acknowledged the fact that different types of crime victims may behave differently. Furthermore, educational efforts appear to be effective in tackling inaccurate beliefs. Potential explanations for occupational differences and limitations associated with the survey methodology are discussed.
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| 12. |
- Ask, Karl, 1978
(författare)
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A survey of police officers' and prosecutors' beliefs about crime victim behaviors
- 2010
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Ingår i: Journal of Interpersonal Violence. ; 25, s. 1132-1149
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A survey of police officers (n = 211) and prosecutors (n = 190) in Sweden was conducted to assess law personnel’s beliefs about the behaviors and reactions of victims of violent crimes. There were considerable differences in the expected behavioral display of different types of crime victims, with rape and domestic assault victims seen as particularly prone to expressive self-presentation and self-blame. Despite empirical evidence showing otherwise, most respondents thought that crime victims’ nonverbal and emotional expression is to some extent related to the truthfulness of their accounts. However, educational efforts appeared to have a corrective influence on such beliefs. The perceived prevalence of false reports differed across crime types, with rape and mugging receiving particularly high estimates. Police officers believed false reports to be more common than did prosecutors. Time constraints were seen, especially by prosecutors, as an impediment to appropriate treatment of crime victims. Potential explanations for occupational differences and limitations associated with the survey methodology are discussed.
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| 13. |
- Ask, Karl, 1978, et al.
(författare)
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Approach, avoidance, and the perception of credibility
- 2020
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Ingår i: Open Psychology. - : Walter de Gruyter GmbH. - 2543-8883. ; 2:1, s. 3-21
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Based on a functional approach to credibility judgments, the authors hypothesize that receivers’ judgments of senders’ credibility involve an evaluative dimension (i.e., good–bad) and are associated with approach and avoidance tendencies. In three experiments (total N = 645), participants (receivers) judged the credibility of suspects (senders) denying involvement in a mock theft. While watching or reading the message, receivers performed an approach-related (arm flexion) or an avoidance-related (arm extension) motor action. Although receivers’ affective evaluations of senders (good–bad) correlated strongly with credibility judgments in all three experiments, the results of the arm position manipulation were mixed. In Experiment 1, receivers in an arm flexion (vs. arm extension) state judged the sender as more credible, but only when informed beforehand about the upcoming credibility judgment. In Experiment 2 and 3, however, there was no evidence of an arm position effect on credibility judgments. A cross-experimental meta-analysis revealed that the effect of the manipulation was statistically indistinguishable from zero, Hedges’ g = 0.07, 95% CI [−0.09, 0.22], and provided strong support for the null hypothesis. Multiple interpretations of the results are discussed.
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| 14. |
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| 15. |
- Ask, Karl, 1978
(författare)
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Cognitive processing strategies in criminal investigations: Experimental evidence for situational influences
- 2007
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Ingår i: Stockholm Criminology Symposium 2007, 4-6 June, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- In the course of a criminal investigation, investigators must negotiate salient external pressures (e.g., time pressure, occupational norms) as well as internal psychological states (e.g., emotions, motives). Decades of psychological research has shown that such factors may influence considerably the processes of human judgment and decision making, including the likelihood of stereotype use. However, the cognitive processes involved in investigative work have long been neglected by researchers. This paper presents a series of experimental studies that have systematically studied the cognitive consequences of pressures specific to the investigative setting. The studies employed a vignette paradigm, in which experienced criminal investigators were presented with summaries of unsolved criminal cases and asked to make judgments about guilt, evidence reliability and other aspects of the cases. The key finding is that time pressure, anger, and the activation of prevailing organizational norms result in the reliance on simplified, heuristic information-processing strategies, as indicated by imperviousness to new information and perseverance of initial beliefs about the cases. Although the use of stereotypes was not examined specifically in these studies, it can be concluded that several factors in investigators’ working environment facilitate cognitive processing strategies known to increase stereotype use.
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| 16. |
- Ask, Karl, 1978
(författare)
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Complainant emotional expressions and perceived credibility: Exploring the role of perceivers’ facial mimicry and empathy
- 2018
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Ingår i: Legal and Criminological Psychology. - : Wiley. - 1355-3259. ; 23:2, s. 252-264
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Purpose This research investigated the roles of perceivers’ facial mimicry and empathy in the emotional victim effect (EVE) – the finding that complainants tend to appear more credible when exhibiting (vs. not exhibiting) negative emotional displays during their statements. Because facial mimicry plays a key role in empathic responding, it was hypothesized that inhibiting and facilitating perceivers’ mimicry would attenuate and amplify the EVE, respectively. Methods Participants (N = 362) in an experiment were instructed to mimic or not to mimic facial expressions (controls received no mimicry instructions) while watching a statement by an emotional or non‐emotional rape complainant. Participants rated the complainant's believability and the extent to which they experienced cognitive and affective empathy. Results The perceived believability of the complainant was not affected by complainant emotions, thus failing to replicate the EVE. However, the inhibition of mimicry unexpectedly reduced the perceived believability of the complainant, apparently by decreasing participants’ cognitive empathy. Conclusions The current findings suggest that mimicry inhibition may increase scepticism in the context of credibility assessment. This has important implications for decision‐making in legal settings and for research on the process of credibility attribution. Moreover, the failure to replicate the EVE adds to the cumulative evidence on the underlying effect size for the phenomenon.
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| 17. |
- Ask, Karl, 1978
(författare)
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Confirmation bias in legal settings
- 2011
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Ingår i: Keynote presentation at the 9th Conference of the Society for Research in Applied Memory and Cognition (SARMAC), New York City, USA.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)
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| 18. |
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| 19. |
- Ask, Karl, 1978
(författare)
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Criminal investigation: Motivation, emotion and cognition in the processing of evidence
- 2006
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This thesis examines biases in judgments made in the context of criminal investigation, drawing theoretically on frameworks developed in social and cognitive psychology. Study I investigated the existence of confirmation bias in the interpretation of criminal evidence, and the need for cognitive closure (NFC) as a potential moderator. In two experiments, criminal investigators (N = 50) and undergraduate students (N = 68) were presented with one of two alternative hypotheses regarding a homicide case, and then read the same set of evidence from the investigation. Students displayed the predicted confirmation bias, interpreting the evidence in line with their initial hypothesis. In contrast, criminal investigators made incriminating interpretations of the evidence across conditions. Investigators high (vs. low) in NFC were somewhat more likely to identify exonerating information when it confirmed their hypothesis, but somewhat less likely when the information disconfirmed their hypothesis. In Study II, the notion that non-preferred (vs. preferred) witness evidence is more thoroughly scrutinized was tested. Criminal investigators (N = 49) rated their perception of a witness who either confirmed or disconfirmed the focal hypothesis of a homicide investigation. As predicted, the hypothesis-inconsistent witness was seen as providing a less reliable statement, although its background and witnessing conditions were identical to those of the hypothesis-consistent witness. High- (vs. low-) NFC investigators were less likely to accommodate their perception of the case to the witness evidence, indicating a stronger tendency to preserve their initial belief. Drawing on previous research on the hindsight bias, Study III tested the hypothesis that the identification of the suspect in a lineup (positive outcome) would increase the perceived suggestiveness of the lineup, whereas a non-identification (negative outcome) would decrease perceived suggestiveness, relative to no outcome knowledge. In a first experiment, undergraduate students (N = 50) showed the predicted influence of positive, but not negative, outcome. In a second experiment, where the lineup was presented as part of a case material, police trainees (N = 126) displayed the expected influence of negative, but not positive, outcome. In Study IV, the appraisal tendencies associated with anger and sadness were expected to (a) shift investigators attribution of witness-statement reliability towards either witness variables (anger) or witnessing-situation variables (sadness), and (b) promote either a heuristic (anger) or systematic (sadness) processing of the witness evidence. Experimental data from criminal investigators (N = 61) showed that, when judging statement reliability, sad participants relied on their perception of both witness and situational variables, whereas angry participants relied only on witness variables. Sad participants were sensitive to the consistency of the statement with the central hypothesis of the investigation, indicating systematic processing, whereas angry participants were not, indicating heuristic processing. Taken together, the research in this thesis suggests that investigative judgments are susceptible to motivational, emotional, and cognitive biases. This calls attention to the necessity of developing safeguards against excessive influence of subjective factors in criminal investigations.
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| 20. |
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| 21. |
- Ask, Karl, 1978, et al.
(författare)
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Effects of investigators epistemic motivation: Biased perception and sensitivity to criminal evidence
- 2005
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Ingår i: Paper presented at the 15th European Conference on Psychology and Law, Vilnius, Lithuania.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- In a first study, 50 experienced criminal investigators (Experiment 1) and 68 university students (Experiment 2) read a condensed homicide case material. Students interpreted the material differently as a function of their initial hy-pothesis regarding the case, whereas investigators made incriminating interpre-tations regardless of hypothesis. Investigators with a high (vs. low) need for cog-nitive closure (NFC) were somewhat more influenced by their initial hypothesis. In a second study of 49 experienced investigators, a witness who reported infor-mation inconsistent (vs. consistent) with investigators initial hypothesis was per-ceived as less reliable and credible. High-NFC (vs. low-NFC) participants were less influenced by the witness in their perception of the case. The studies indicate that initial beliefs regarding a crime may color the interpretation of subsequent evidence, and that epistemic motives may be an important source of belief perse-verance
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| 22. |
- Ask, Karl, 1978, et al.
(författare)
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Effects of investigators’ epistemic motivation: Biased perception and sensitivity to criminal evidence
- 2005
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Ingår i: The 2nd meeting of the NNPL, Kristianstad, Sweden, September 29-30.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- External pressures in investigators’ work environment, such as time pressure, occupational culture, and pressure from media and the public, are likely to activate epistemic goals—subjective preferences regarding the outcome of cognitive tasks. Predictions were derived from the motivated social cognition framework as to how epistemic goals might influence the tasks carried out in criminal investigations. A first study examined the prediction that investigators’ initial hypothesis regarding a crime would influence their interpretation of ambiguous criminal evidence, particularly when motivated to achieve cognitive closure. The results of two experiments, with 50 experienced criminal investigators (Experiment 1) and 68 university students (Experiment 2), showed that students’ interpretations of a criminal case material differed significantly as a function of their initial hypothesis. In contrast, investigators tended to perceive the material in incriminating terms across conditions. A non-significant trend suggested that investigators with a high (vs. low) need for cognitive closure (NFC) were more influenced by their initial hypothesis. A second study tested the prediction that witnesses who reported information inconsistent (vs. consistent) with investigators’ initial hypothesis would be perceived as less reliable and credible, particularly by investigators working under high NFC. The prediction received consistent support in the data from 49 experienced criminal investigators. Although the effect was not moderated by investigators’ level of NFC, participants high (vs. low) in NFC were more persistent in their initial hypothesis regarding the crime, and less influenced by the witness evidence.
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| 23. |
- Ask, Karl, 1978, et al.
(författare)
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Elasticity in evaluations of criminal evidence: Exploring the role of cognitive dissonance
- 2011
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Ingår i: Legal and Criminological Psychology. ; 16, s. 289-306
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Purpose. Previous experiments have demonstrated asymmetrical scepticism in investigators' judgments of criminal evidence – evidence inconsistent (vs. consistent) with the dominant hypothesis about a case is judged as less reliable. In addition, some types of evidence (e.g., witness testimony) are more susceptible to asymmetrical scepticism than others (e.g., DNA evidence), indicating varying degrees of elasticity. This article proposes that inconsistent evidence arouses cognitive dissonance, and that the dissonance can be reduced through either asymmetrical scepticism (for high-elasticity evidence) or belief change (for low-elasticity evidence). The hypotheses are tested in two experiments. Methods. In both experiments, law students made a preliminary judgment about the guilt of a suspect in a homicide case, and subsequently received a piece of DNA or witness evidence which was either consistent or inconsistent with the preliminary judgment. The extent to which participants changed their guilt judgments, judged the additional evidence as reliable, and felt dissonance served as the main dependent variables. Results. Inconsistent (vs. consistent) evidence did arouse stronger dissonance, but only for witness (and not DNA) evidence. Experienced dissonance (Experiment 1) and dissonance reduction (Experiment 2) accounted for the effect of the evidence on changes in guilt judgments, but not for the effect on reliability judgments. The greatest dissonance reduction was observed among participants who received inconsistent witness evidence but did not change their guilt judgments accordingly. Conclusions. It appears that dissonance plays a significant, although complex, role in investigative judgments of guilt and reliability. Alternative dissonance-reducing mechanisms that can account for the findings and practical implications are discussed.
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| 24. |
- Ask, Karl, 1978, et al.
(författare)
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Eliciting human intelligence: The effects of social exclusion and inclusion on information disclosure
- 2019
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Ingår i: Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling. - : Wiley. - 1544-4759 .- 1544-4767. ; 16:1, s. 3-17
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Eliciting information from semicooperative sources presents a major challenge in investigative and intelligence settings. This research examines the role of the human need to belong in individuals' willingness to disclose critical information. We hypothesised that social exclusion would exert a threat to individuals' need to belong and self‐esteem, which would make them strive for social reconnection through sharing information with others. In two experiments (N = 150 and N = 135), social exclusion and inclusion were manipulated before participants were given the opportunity to disclose critical information in a semicooperative game setting (Study 1) or a mock intelligence interview (Study 2). Social exclusion did not influence information disclosure in any of the experiments. Instead, however, social inclusion unexpectedly increased information disclosure in the interview setting. We conclude that prior social experiences can influence the outcome of subsequent interviews, but the precise mechanisms underlying such influence are currently unknown.
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| 25. |
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