| 1. |
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| 2. |
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| 3. |
- Dimitriou, Ioannis, et al.
(författare)
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From preferences to concerted policy on mandated share for renewable energy in transport
- 2021
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Ingår i: Energy Policy. - : Elsevier BV. - 0301-4215 .- 1873-6777. ; 155
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Environmental, energy, transport and agriculture policies are intersecting when deciding on renewable energy in transport (RES-T) implementation strategies. The uncertainty related to the advanced biofuels, limitations and underperformance of readily available technologies for decarbonization of transport sector challenges RES-T policy making. This paper employs partitioning as a choice architecture tool to create a concerted RES-T policy. The approach collects the preferred attributes of an alternative fuel rather than the preferred fuel by guiding stakeholders through RES-T policy, ensuring that all aspects of concerted policy are covered. Fuzzy analytical hierarchical process (fAHP) has been superimposed on the partitioning related to the biofuels to mathematically weight the alternatives. fAHP ranks the weighted preferences on biofuels to build a consensus among stakeholder groups, later translated to the actual RES-T mix, quantities and investments needed to meet the mandated share. Applied on Croatia, the preferences of three stakeholder groups were weighted and ranked; whereas some discrepancies were identified, the consensus outlined the national transport decarbonization policy with related investments. When the consensual RES-T mix contrasted with the least-cost alternative, the investment needed was reduced to a quarter. The collaborative management process proved to be a time-effective participatory approach for a silo-based policy structure.
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| 4. |
- Dimitriou, Ioannis, et al.
(författare)
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Impact of Populus plantations on water and soil quality
- 2017
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Ingår i: BioEnergy Research. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1939-1234 .- 1939-1242. ; 10, s. 750-759
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Trees of genus Populus (in our context primarily poplars) are predominantly grown in Sweden in small plantations on arable land in southern and central parts of the country to produce biomass for energy and other purposes. This study evaluated the effects (i) of poplar plantations on groundwater quality, by determining differences in leaching of nitrogen and phosphorus to groundwater, and (ii) of poplar and hybrid aspen plantations on soil quality in terms of carbon in the top- and subsoil. The study was conducted comparing Populus plantations in Sweden with adjacent fields with cereals and grasslands. The experiment concerning the groundwater leaching was conducted in eight poplar plantations along three growing seasons (2012-2015). For the soil carbon experiments, 19 poplar and two hybrid aspen plantations and the respective reference fields were sampled. NO3-N leaching from poplar plantations was significantly lower than that from reference fields with cereals, but not when compared with grasslands. Spring NO3-N leaching was significantly lower in poplars than in the reference fields, whereas leaching of NO3-N in autumn did not differ. Concentrations of PO4-P in the groundwater of poplar plantations were lower compared to the respective ones of the reference fields. There were no clear trends observed when comparing carbon concentrations in the topsoil of the poplar and hybrid aspen plantations compared to the respective adjacent reference fields. For the subsoil, the average carbon concentrations in the poplar and hybrid aspen plantations were equal to the respective ones of cereals, but were higher when compared to grassland.
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| 5. |
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| 6. |
- Dimitriou, Ioannis, et al.
(författare)
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Nitrogen fertilization of poplar plantations on agricultural land: effects on diameter increments and leaching
- 2017
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Ingår i: Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. - : Informa UK Limited. - 0282-7581 .- 1651-1891. ; 32, s. 700-707
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Fast-growing poplar plantations on agricultural land require intensive management activities, often involving fertilization. The present paper aims at investigating the effect of fertilization on growth and on groundwater quality, by examining four trials established in commercial poplar plantations in central and south Sweden. The treatments consisted of nitrogen applications (Urea N46, Tot. N: 46%) in two different dosages, 75 and 150 kg ha(-1) for two years, and a control, in three replicates (plot size: 20 x 20 m) following a randomized block design. Diameters were measured at each plot at the end of each growing season for the period 2012-2015. At the same time, groundwater pipes were installed in the center of each plot, at ca. 1.5 m depth. Samples were regularly collected and analyzed for NO3-N and PO4-P. The results show a large variation in the diameter growth response to nitrogen fertilization and the leaching of poplar plantations after canopy closure. In young plantations, the effect on growth was clear with moderate fertilization rates although it was not observed on sandy soils with already good growth, leading to high nitrogen leaching.
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| 7. |
- Dimitriou, Ioannis, et al.
(författare)
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Poplar and willow plantations on agricultural land in Sweden: Area, yield, groundwater quality and soil organic carbon
- 2017
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Ingår i: Forest Ecology and Management. - : Elsevier BV. - 0378-1127 .- 1872-7042. ; 383, s. 99-107
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Poplars (Populus spp.) and Willows (Salix spp.) are predominantly grown in plantations on arable land in southern and central parts of Sweden to produce biomass for energy and other purposes. The present study aims at characterizing their present situation with special emphasis on the current extension of the cultivation, expected yield levels as well as on their effects on soil and water. The data sources combine own measurements with existing data, trials and records from previous studies. The results show that poplar and willow currently entail 1322 and 9830 ha in Sweden, respectively, being distributed in similar areas in central and south parts of the country, with an average plantation size of 2.59 and 3.87 ha. Productivity varies depending on the measurement methods, being 6.90 and 7.7 Mg-1 ha(-1) year for poplar and willow, respectively, when estimating standing biomass based on small plots but being about half this value when based on harvesting records from commercial experience. Concerning the impact on groundwater quality, poplar plantations presented higher values of NO3-N and lower values of PO4-P than willow. These differences were consistent along seasons in case of NO3-N, and were only observed in autumn in the case of PO4-P. The results showed no differences between the plantations systems concerning the organic carbon on soil, although in the subsoil (>40 cm) there were slight higher values in case of willow plantations. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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| 8. |
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| 9. |
- Dimitriou, Ioannis, et al.
(författare)
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Positioning the biofuel policy in the bioeconomy of the BioEast macro-region
- 2022
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Ingår i: Biofuels. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1759-7269 .- 1759-7277. ; 13, s. 833-842
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This study outlines and reviews the concerted biofuels' policy for transport of eleven countries in central and eastern Europe (BioEast macro-region). Policy preferences collected from relevant government representatives of the region are analyzed using choice architecture and fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process. The experts' preferences concerning criteria related to land use, decarbonization and development of a national market are ranked with similar importance, with a slight preference for the latter. The results demonstrate a great variation in the priorities for forming and implementing biofuel policies in the region, strongly related to national realities (e.g. available land for biofuel production, target fulfilment). Countries delaying in their biofuel targets aim at policies that fulfil internal demands without considering other criteria related to land use issues and own sources. The results show a general agreement (95% consensus) of having about 66% of renewable energy in transport covered from biofuels resulting from domestic biomass supply. Yet, there are differing preferences in the policy options at country level, which makes a single consensus policy for the macro-region challenging. Finally, the results highlight the different degrees of policy intervention that are implicit in the policy preferences of the national decision makers.
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| 10. |
- Dimitriou, Ioannis, et al.
(författare)
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Potential of short rotation forestry
- 2014
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Ingår i: Forest Bioenergy for Europe.. - 9789525980110 ; :4, s. 75-80
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)
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| 11. |
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| 12. |
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| 13. |
- Englund, Oskar, et al.
(författare)
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Beneficial land use change : Strategic expansion of new biomass plantations can reduce environmental impacts from EU agriculture
- 2019
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Annan publikation (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Society faces the double challenge of addressing negative impacts of current land use, while increasing biomass production to meet the future demands for food, materials and bioenergy. Potential impacts of increasing the biomass supply are subject to debate. In the discourse, land use change (LUC) has often been considered as negative, referring to impacts of deforestation and cropland expansion. At the same time, LUC is considered necessary for mitigating impacts of existing land use. Strategic establishment of suitable crop cultivation systems in agricultural landscapes can mitigate environmental impacts of current crop production, while providing biomass for the bioeconomy. Here, we explore the potential for such “beneficial LUC” in EU28, based on high-resolution land use modeling. First, we map and quantify the degree of accumulated soil organic carbon losses, wind and water erosion, nitrogen emissions to water, and recurring flooding, in ~81.000 individual sub-watersheds in EU28. We then estimate the effectiveness in mitigating these impacts through establishment of perennial plants, in each sub-watershed. Finally, we identify areas where perennialization may be particularly beneficial from an environmental point of view. The results indicate that there is a substantial potential for effective mitigation, regarding all the assessed impacts. Depending on criteria selection, some 10-46% of the land used for annual crop production in EU28 is located in landscapes that could be considered priority areas for beneficial LUC. While some recent policy development is favorable for promoting beneficial LUC, the effectiveness could be increased by seeking synergies between climate change mitigation, energy security, and other societal goals. One way forward can be to identify and promote options for biomass production in the context of SDG implementation.
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| 14. |
- Englund, Oskar, et al.
(författare)
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Beneficial land-use change in Europe : deployment scenarios for multifunctional riparian buffers and windbreaks
- 2024
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Annan publikation (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The land sector needs to increase biomass production to meet multiple demands while reducing negative land use impacts and transitioning from being a source to being a sink of carbon. The new Common Agricultural Policy of the EU (CAP) steers towards a more needs-based, targeted approach to addressing multiple environmental and climatic objectives, in coherence with other EU policies. In relation to this, new schemes are developed to offer farmers direct payments to adapt practices beneficial for climate, water, soil, air and biodiversity. Multifunctional biomass production systems have potential to reduce environmental impacts from agriculture while maintaining or increasing biomass production for the bioeconomy across Europe. Here, we present the first attempt to model the deployment of two such systems, riparian buffers and windbreaks, across >81.000 landscapes in Europe (EU27 + UK), aiming to quantify the resulting ecosystem services and environmental benefits, considering three deployment scenarios with different incentives for implementation. We found that these multifunctional biomass production systems can reduce N emissions to water and soil loss by wind erosion, respectively, down to a “low” impact level all over Europe, while simultaneously providing substantial environmental co-benefits, using less than 1% of the area under annual crops in the EU. The GHG emissions savings of utilizing the biomass produced in these systems for replacing fossil alternatives, combined with the increases in soil organic carbon, correspond to 1-1,4% of total GHG emissions in EU28. The introduction of “eco-schemes” in the new CAP may resolve some of the main barriers to implementation of large-scale multifunctional biomass production systems. Increasing the knowledge of these opportunities among all EU member states, before designing and introducing country-specific Eco-scheme options in the new CAP, is critical.
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| 15. |
- Englund, Oskar, et al.
(författare)
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Beneficial land use change: Strategic expansion of new biomass plantations can reduce environmental impacts from EU agriculture
- 2020
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Ingår i: Global Environmental Change. - : Elsevier BV. - 0959-3780 .- 1872-9495. ; 60
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Society faces the double challenge of increasing biomass production to meet the future demands for food, materials and bioenergy, while addressing negative impacts of current (and future) land use. In the discourse, land use change (LUC) has often been considered as negative, referring to impacts of deforestation and expansion of biomass plantations. However, strategic establishment of suitable perennial production systems in agricultural landscapes can mitigate environmental impacts of current crop production, while providing biomass for the bioeconomy. Here, we explore the potential for such “beneficial LUC” in EU28. First, we map and quantify the degree of accumulated soil organic carbon losses, soil loss by wind and water erosion, nitrogen emissions to water, and recurring floods, in ∼81.000 individual landscapes in EU28. We then estimate the effectiveness in mitigating these impacts through establishment of perennial plants, in each landscape. The results indicate that there is a substantial potential for effective impact mitigation. Depending on criteria selection, 10–46% of the land used for annual crop production in EU28 is located in landscapes that could be considered priority areas for beneficial LUC. These areas are scattered all over Europe, but there are notable “hot-spots” where priority areas are concentrated, e.g., large parts of Denmark, western UK, The Po valley in Italy, and the Danube basin. While some policy developments support beneficial LUC, implementation could benefit from attempts to realize synergies between different Sustainable Development Goals, e.g., “Zero hunger”, “Clean water and sanitation”, “Affordable and Clean Energy”, “Climate Action”, and “Life on Land”.
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| 16. |
- Englund, Oskar, 1982, et al.
(författare)
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Large-scale deployment of grass in crop rotations as a multifunctional climate mitigation strategy
- 2023
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Ingår i: GCB Bioenergy. - : Wiley. - 1757-1707 .- 1757-1693. ; 15:2, s. 166-184
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The agriculture sector can contribute to climate change mitigation by reducing its own greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, sequestering carbon in vegetation and soils, and providing biomass to substitute for fossil fuels and other GHG-intensive products. The sector also needs to address water, soil, and biodiversity impacts caused by historic and current practices. Emerging EU policies create incentives for cultivation of perennial plants that provide biomass along with environmental benefits. One such option, common in northern Europe, is to include grass in rotations with annual crops to provide biomass while remediating soil organic carbon (SOC) losses and other environmental impacts. Here, we apply a spatially explicit model on >81,000 sub-watersheds in EU27 + UK (Europe) to explore the effects of widespread deployment of such systems. Based on current accumulated SOC losses in individual sub-watersheds, the model identifies and quantifies suitable areas for increased grass cultivation and corresponding biomass- and protein supply, SOC sequestration, and reductions in nitrogen emissions to water as well as wind and water erosion. The model also provides information about possible flood mitigation. The results indicate a substantial climate mitigation potential, with combined annual GHG savings from soil-carbon sequestration and displacement of natural gas with biogas from grass-based biorefineries, equivalent to 13%–48% of current GHG emissions from agriculture in Europe. The environmental co-benefits are also notable, in some cases exceeding the estimated mitigation needs. Yield increases for annual crops in modified rotations mitigate the displacement effect of increasing grass cultivation. If the grass is used as feedstock in lieu of annual crops, the displacement effect can even be negative, that is, a reduced need for annual crop production elsewhere. Incentivizing widespread deployment will require supportive policy measures as well as new uses of grass biomass, for example, as feedstock for green biorefineries producing protein concentrate, biofuels, and other bio-based products.
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| 17. |
- Englund, Oskar, et al.
(författare)
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Large-scale deployment of in-rotation grass cultivation as a multifunctional soil climate mitigation strategy
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Annan publikation (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The agricultural sector can contribute to climate change mitigation by reducing its own greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and sequestering atmospheric carbon in vegetation and soils, and by providing biomass for substituting fossil fuels and other GHG intensive products in the energy, industry and transport sectors. New policies at EU level provide incentives for more sustainable land use practices, for example, cultivation systems using perennial plants that provide biomass for food, bioenergy and other biobased products along with land carbon sequestration and other environmental benefits. Based on spatial modelling across more than 81,000 landscapes in Europe, we find that introduction of grass-clover leys into rotations with annual crops could result in soil organic carbon sequestration corresponding to 5-10% of total current GHG emissions from agriculture in EU27+UK, annually until 2050. The combined annual GHG savings from soil carbon sequestration and use of biogas produced in connection to grass-based biorefineries equals 13-48% of current GHG emissions from agriculture. The assessed environmental co-benefits (reduced wind and water erosion, reduced nitrogen emissions to water, and mitigation of impacts associated with flooding) are considerable. Besides policy instruments, new markets for grass biomass, e.g., as feedstock for producing biofuels and protein concentrate, can incentivize widespread deployment of in-rotation grass cultivation.
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| 18. |
- Englund, Oskar, et al.
(författare)
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Multifunctional perennial production systems for bioenergy: performance and progress
- 2020
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Ingår i: Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. - : Wiley. - 2041-8396 .- 2041-840X.
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- As the global population increases and becomes more affluent, biomass demands for food and biomaterials will increase. Demand growth is further accelerated by the implementation of climate policies and strategies to replace fossil resources with biomass. There are, however, concerns about the size of the prospective biomass demand and the environmental and social consequences of the corresponding resource mobilization, especially concerning impacts from the associated land-use change. Strategically integrating perennials into landscapes dominated by intensive agriculture can, for example, improve biodiversity, reduce soil erosion and nutrient emissions to water, increase soil carbon, enhance pollination, and avoid or mitigate flooding events. Such ?multifunctional perennial production systems? can thus contribute to improving overall land-use sustainability, while maintaining or increasing overall biomass productivity in the landscape. Seven different cases in different world regions are here reviewed to exemplify and evaluate (a) multifunctional production systems that have been established to meet emerging bioenergy demands, and (b) efforts to identify locations where the establishment of perennial crops will be particularly beneficial. An important barrier towards wider implementation of multifunctional systems is the lack of markets, or policies, compensating producers for enhanced ecosystem services and other environmental benefits. This deficiency is particularly important since prices for fossil-based fuels are low relative to bioenergy production costs. Without such compensation, multifunctional perennial production systems will be unlikely to contribute to the development of a sustainable bioeconomy.
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| 19. |
- Englund, Oskar, et al.
(författare)
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Strategic deployment of riparian buffers and windbreaks in Europe can co-deliver biomass and environmental benefits
- 2021
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Ingår i: Communications Earth & Environment. - : Springer Nature. - 2662-4435. ; 2:1
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Within the scope of the new Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union, in coherence with other EU policies, new incentives are developed for farmers to deploy practices that are beneficial for climate, water, soil, air, and biodiversity. Such practices include establishment of multifunctional biomass production systems, designed to reduce environmental impacts while providing biomass for food, feed, bioenergy, and other biobased products. Here, we model three scenarios of large-scale deployment for two such systems, riparian buffers and windbreaks, across over 81,000 landscapes in Europe, and quantify the corresponding areas, biomass output, and environmental benefits. The results show that these systems can effectively reduce nitrogen emissions to water and soil loss by wind erosion, while simultaneously providing substantial environmental co-benefits, having limited negative effects on current agricultural production. This kind of beneficial land-use change using strategic perennialization is important for meeting environmental objectives while advancing towards a sustainable bioeconomy.
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| 20. |
- Hjelm, Birger, et al.
(författare)
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Diameter–Height Models for Fast-growing Poplar Plantations on Agricultural Land in Sweden
- 2015
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Ingår i: BioEnergy Research. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1939-1234 .- 1939-1242. ; 8, s. 1759-1768
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- There is increasing interest in using poplar plantations as sources of bioenergy in many countries, but optimizing their management, robust models for estimating and monitoring their structure, growth and biomass are required. The presented study explores the diameter-height relationships of poplars in 40 plantations on agricultural land located in central and southern Sweden, in order to provide tools for an easy estimation of standing biomass of poplar stands. Diameter and height measurements of 167 trees were included: 117 for calibration and 50 for validation. The constructed diameter-height equations were developed using a mixed-effect modelling approach to address the variations among sites of the plantations and obtain a flexible tool capable of providing locally calibrated estimates. Different models with various structures and stand variables, such as mean diameter and age, were tested. The best model presented R (2) values of 0.87 and 0.96, for the fixed and mixed model parts, respectively. Thus, it appears to be capable of providing useful estimates of heights of poplar stands from measurements of stem diameters in sample plots, thereby facilitating the planning and management of Swedish poplar plantations as future energy feedstock.
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| 21. |
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| 22. |
- Karlsson, Anders, et al.
(författare)
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The TRANSFOR success story: International forestry education through exchange
- 2010
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Ingår i: Forestry Chronicle. - : Canadian Institute of Forestry. - 0015-7546 .- 1499-9315. ; 86, s. 57-62
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The TRANSFOR (Transatlantic Education for Global Sustainable Forest Sector Development) program has promoted international student and staff exchanges among four Canadian (Alberta, British Columbia, New Brunswick and Toronto) universities and universities in four European countries (Germany [Freiburg], Finland [Joensuu], Sweden [Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umea] and the United Kingdom [Bangor University, Wales]). The program incorporated five components: one or two semester study visits for undergraduate forestry students, working internships, summer field courses, study visits for academic staff, and TRANSFOR project meetings. The summer field courses were a highly innovative part of the program and allowed students to spend three to four weeks learning about forestry activities and challenges on a continent different from that of their home institution. The program fostered internationally focused understanding of forest ecology and management, as well as economic and cultural factors, as will be required to develop effective international standards for sustainable forest management. Most student participants reported that it was a very positive experience and a high point of their education.
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| 23. |
- Kons, Kalvis, et al.
(författare)
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Industrial End-Users' Preferred Characteristics for Wood Biomass Feedstocks
- 2022
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Ingår i: Energies. - : MDPI AG. - 1996-1073. ; 15
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The use of sustainably sourced biomass is an important tool for mitigating the effects of climate change; but biomass is far from being a homogeneous resource. The aim of this study was to examine the decision-making process of industrial end-users considering biomass procurement. An online, two-part survey generated responses from 27 experienced professionals, representing a portfolio of facilities varying in size, technology, and biomass types, across Australia, Canada, Finland, and Sweden. A PAPRIKA conjoint analysis approach was used to analyze the data so that the attributes that influenced procurement decisions could be weighted and ranked. The results provided an insight into end-users' views on factors including facility location, size, and biomass storage, handling, and procurement for different wood-based industrial services. The most important decision-making attribute appeared to be the type of biomass assortment, at individual, national, and aggregated levels. Of seven sub-categories of biomass assortments, sawdust (35%) was the most preferred type followed by stem wood chips (20%) and energy wood (15%). We concluded that, from the end-user's perspective, a pre-defined biomass assortment is the most important factor when deciding on feedstock procurement at a bioenergy facility. These results help us better understand end-users' perceptions of biomass properties in relation to their conversion processes and supply preferences and can inform product development and the securement of new niches in alternative business environments by existing and future biohubs.
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| 24. |
- Mola-Yudego, Blas, et al.
(författare)
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A conceptual framework for the introduction of energy crops
- 2014
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Ingår i: Renewable Energy. - : Elsevier BV. - 0960-1481. ; 72, s. 29-38
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- There is currently limited experience on the introduction of new commercial crops as a source of raw material for energy uses. The present paper analyses the introduction and development of commercial willow plantations in Sweden during the period 1986-2005. A general framework is constructed in order to identify all the factors and interrelations that can describe the introduction and expansion of willow as an alternative crop for the production of raw material for energy. The factors are identified and analysed based on a broad database of information from commercial plantations, covering almost all existing plantations, and on documents referring to existing academic literature or official reports. The analysis provides with lessons that can be useful for the introduction of new energy crops in other countries and shows the possible contradictions in policy applications. The analysis confirms that stable policies and long-term contracts reduce the uncertainties associated with the cultivation. The results of this study can be of value for other countries aiming at the introduction of new crops for bioenergy. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 25. |
- Mola-Yudego, Blas
(författare)
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A quantitative review of the representation of forest conflicts across the world: Resource periphery and emerging patterns
- 2013
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Ingår i: Forest Policy and Economics. - : Elsevier BV. - 1389-9341 .- 1872-7050. ; 33, s. 11-20
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The ubiquitous nature of forest conflicts lends themselves to quantitative analysis on a global level which could help facilitate the further development of conflict management tools. The aim of this work is to present a quantitative review of the representation of forest conflicts across the world, developing an analysis of the geographical components of forest conflicts using the contested resource periphery theory as a framework. The analysis was based on a database covering 303 forest conflicts identified in academic literature and reports from international forest organisations and environmental non-governmental organisations (ENGOs). The analysis includes a methodology to geographically define the economic cores at different scales, and the location of the conflicts regarding a core-periphery continuum. The results found that forest conflicts are located in resource peripheries on global levels, but not necessarily on regional or local levels, as the type of conflict adds additional complexity to the analysis. Finally, it was found that international ENGOs targeting the operations of forest industry focus mainly on resource peripheries, which is a reflection of the resource's location, but also target the markets and financiers, usually found at the economic cores. The work provides additional tools for the analysis of the geography of forest conflicts, and the implications of the work not only feeds into the understanding of how conflicts develop, but also helps in verifying the theory of contested resource periphery. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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