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| 2. |
- Lundin Frisk, Emrik, 1994, et al.
(författare)
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The geosystem services concept – What is it and can it support subsurface planning?
- 2022
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Ingår i: Ecosystem Services. - : Elsevier BV. - 2212-0416. ; 58
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- The subsurface is a multifunctional natural resource. However, a mindset of “out of sight, out of mind” and a first-come-first-served principle are prevalent when accessing these resources, compromising fair intergenerational and intragenerational distribution and sustainable development. As with the ecosystem services (ES) concept, which acknowledges the contribution of the living part of nature to human well-being, the concept of geosystem services (GS) has been suggested as a way to highlight abiotic services and services provided by the subsurface. The overall aim of this study was to review current definitions of GS and their categorisation, and to suggest how the concept of GS can support subsurface planning. A systematic literature review on GS was carried out following the PRISMA protocol drawing from the Scopus database. The emerging picture from the reviewed articles is that the GS concept is both one of novelty and one currently showing inconsistency, with two prominent definitions: A) GS are abiotic services that are the direct result of the planet's geodiversity, independent of the interactions with biotic nature – there is no differentiation between suprasurface and subsurface features, and B) GS provide benefits specifically resulting from the subsurface. Thirty-one out of thirty-nine GS listed in the reviewed literature are included in the abiotic extension of the common ES framework CICES v5.1, but some essential services are omitted. A unified definition of GS is desirable to build a common framework for classifying and describing GS, potentially following the CICES structure for ES. Such a framework can support systematic inclusion of GS in planning processes and contribute to improved subsurface planning. In planning practice, there are examples of important GS that are already included under the ES umbrella because planners are aware of their importance but a comprehensive framework to handle these services is lacking.
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| 3. |
- Mossmark, Fredrik, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Aggressive groundwater chemistry caused by underground constructions
- 2008
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Ingår i: Proceedings of the 33rd International Geological Congress, Oslo, Norway, August 2008.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- When considering the degradation process and lifetime of the support system and equipment in underground facilities, the selection of materials is (normally) based on established criteria for the chemical composition of the groundwater. This is important for decisions regarding the steel quality and protection of reinforcement bolts, as well as the material used for the waterproofing system and lining. The criteria are imposed through groundwater sampling and analysis of groundwater prior to the construction of an underground facility. However, studies of the impact on groundwater chemistry from the construction of underground structures and experiments with groundwater extraction indicate that the groundwater chemistry is likely to change over time. Underground facilities are known to cause hydrological changes, especially during the construction phase. However, extensive monitoring programmes of groundwater chemistry are unusual. To further investigate possible changes of water chemistry due to hydrological changes, an experiment with groundwater extraction has been carried out. The experiment was conducted through the constant extraction of groundwater for a period of five years (between the years 2000 and 2005) from within a small watershed (28000 m2) at Lake Gårdsjön, located 50 km north of Gothenburg in Sweden. The area was also monitored during a few years before the extraction started and during the recovery phase. The area of the experiment is characterized by Precambrian crystalline bedrock covered by a thin overburden of glacial till and organic soils. The extraction caused the runoff from the watershed to decrease by nearly 50 % and the groundwater level to fluctuate more than at a nearby reference area. The hydrological impact of the experiment, with increased groundwater recharge, lead to changes and increased seasonal variations in the chemical composition of the groundwater in the bedrock. The hydrochemical variations were caused by seasonal variations in both the amount of water available for groundwater recharge and the chemical composition of the recharging water. Compared to the reference area, the seasonal variations were observed to increase for all the parameters included in the criteria used by the Swedish authorities for selection of construction materials (pH, hardness (Ca), alkalinity, salinity (EC)). An established method to assess the impact of the water composition on the corrosion of steel materials is the use of Langeliers index. The experiment with groundwater extraction caused a larger fluctuation of Langeliers index in the test area compared to the reference area. The results from the experiment confirm the observations from previous tunnelling projects, and show that the methods commonly used to assess the expected future aggressivity of the groundwater in the planning for underground facilities should be reviewed.
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| 4. |
- Mossmark, Fredrik, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Effects of groundwater extraction from crystalline hard rock on water chemistry in an acid forested catchment at Gardsjon, Sweden
- 2007
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Ingår i: Applied Geochemistry. - : Elsevier BV. - 0883-2927 .- 1872-9134. ; 22:6, s. 1157-1166
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Atmospheric deposition of S in Sweden has decreased by some 80% over the last 15 a, resulting in a general reduction of SO4 concentrations in ground and surface water. This project, however, shows that artificial hydrological alteration in an acid wetland can reverse this trend and increase acidity and SO4 concentrations. The experiment involved the monitoring of two catchments in relatively virgin conditions. In one of the catchments, an experiment with intensive groundwater extraction from the bedrock was carried out. During the experiment, the runoff from the catchment decreased by 50%. Furthermore, the extraction of groundwater resulted in increased seasonal aeration of the centrally located wetland, leading to oxidation of reduced S bound to the soil layers of the wetland. The S changed to solute SO4, with a subsequent SO4 surge. Thus, the experiment resulted in an induced acidification of the wetland and runoff waters. The extraction of groundwater significantly increased the recharge of water from the overburden, glacial till and organic soils to groundwater in the bedrock, which in turn reduced the retention time in the bedrock aquifer. These changes resulted in the chemical signature of the groundwater in the bedrock becoming similar to those of the wetland., The findings revealed deterioration in the water quality in the bedrock due to increased concentrations of dissolved organic C and SO4, as well as a decrease in pH. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 5. |
- Mossmark, Fredrik, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Environmental impact of underground construction from a hydrological and hydrochemical disturbance perspective
- 2018
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Ingår i: ISRM International Symposium - 10th Asian Rock Mechanics Symposium, ARMS 2018.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- In most projects involving underground construction, impact to hydrogeological conditions is monitored through measurements of groundwater levels. In contrast, hydrological and hydrochemical changes are rarely monitored throughout a project and the assessment of environmental resilience is often limited to an evaluation that broadly links the behavior of groundwater levels with a large number of engineering geological and ecological parameters. An ongoing field research project in Sweden is based on monitoring the recovery of hydrogeological, hydrological and hydrochemical conditions after a long-term groundwater extraction. The groundwater discharge was intended to simulate effects of underground construction. Groundwater was extracted during a period of five years from fractured igneous rock in a previously glaciated area with thin soil cover. During this time the hydrogeological and hydrological conditions were altered with lowered groundwater levels and the surface runoff from the area decreased by nearly 50%. Meanwhile significant hydrochemical changes were observed with spikes in sulfate and lowered pH in groundwater as well as in surface water. Preliminary results show that hydrological recovery after the groundwater extraction took more than three years, despite apparent quick recovery of groundwater levels with runoff volumes remaining lower than in a nearby reference area. Meanwhile, hydrochemical conditions did not return to those that existed prior to groundwater extraction. During the first three years of recovery, sulfate remained higher in shallow groundwater bodies, whereas base cations were lower compared to before the extraction started. After ten years of recovery sulfate concentrations have decreased by 30% to 60%, in both surface water and groundwater bodies, whereas chloride concentrations have increased compared to before the extraction. By restricting monitoring to only groundwater levels, some environmental impacts due to underground constructions may be missed.
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| 6. |
- Mossmark, Fredrik, 1975
(författare)
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Groundwater chemistry affected by underground construction activities
- 2010
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- A leaking underground construction increases the groundwater recharge and decreases the residence time of the groundwater. If groundwater of a certain chemical composition dominated the location inside the bedrock of a planned tunnel prior to the construction phase, this water is likely to be replaced by water of a different chemical type because of leakage of water into the tunnel during the construction and operational phases. The changes in hydrological and hydrochemical conditions may in turn result in changed chemical processes and interaction between the water and the bedrock/fracture minerals. The processes that may be altered include acid base, redox and ion exchange processes. The changes in the chemical composition of the groundwater may be of importance to the degradation of the construction materials. This thesis presents experience from one field study, three case studies and numerous studies mentioned in the literature. The field study and the three case studies show that underground constructions are likely to cause changes in the water chemistry. The hydrochemical changes have largely been seen to be dependent on geological conditions.Common changes in water chemistry often include acidification and decreased alkalinity as a result of the oxidation of sulphide in wetlands or in fracture minerals that form sulphuric acid. This hydrochemical process has been seen to be triggered, thereby causing more aggressive hydrochemistry during the construction phases of the Hallandsåsen and Romeriksporten rail tunnels. Changes in the concentration of calcium and magnesium through cation exchange following acidification have been observed, primarily in the field experiment at Lake Gårdsjön. Underground constructions often cause an increase in organic matter in the bedrock groundwater, which is measured as organic carbon. Decomposition of organic matter may lower the redox potential. Furthermore, the use of cementitious grout is likely to increase the pH near an underground facility. Changes in redox potential and pH are likely to have an impact on the redox state of iron and manganese. A more reducing environment may cause iron and manganese to become dissolved while a rise in the pH may lead to precipitation. The precipitation of iron and manganese is the most common cause of clogging of the drainage system in underground facilities.Underground constructions have been seen to cause changes in the chloride concentrations. These observed concentration changes include an increase through the upconing of deep marine or brine waters. However, a reduced chloride concentration through deeper penetration of shallow meteoric water has also been observed. The hydrochemical changes may have implications for construction materials, such as steel bolts, waterproofing grout and shotcrete, used in the underground constructions. However, hydrochemical changes that may shorten the lifespan of the construction materials can be limited through grouting and thereby the hydrological impact of the construction activities in sensitive locations. There is a need to establish and implement models to predict the prevailing hydrochemical conditions in the construction and operational phase of a facility based on information from the pre-construction phase.
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| 7. |
- Mossmark, Fredrik, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Hydrochemical changes caused by underground constructions - A case study of the Kattleberg rail tunnel
- 2015
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Ingår i: Engineering Geology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0013-7952. ; 191, s. 86-98
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Afield study was carried out during the construction phase of the Kattleberg rail tunnel in Sweden to improve the understanding of changes in hydrology, hydrogeology and hydrochemistry related to tunnelling and as part of a research programme where the aim was to predict such changes. A significant conclusion from the study is that knowledge and understanding of geology and hydrogeology are paramount to understanding the hydrochemistry and predicting its temporal and spatial variations. In the study, leakage of water into the tunnel during the construction phase caused changes in the hydrogeology with increased groundwater flow and a lowering of the groundwater level in the bedrock and in the overburden, resulting in a change in the hydrochemistry. The hydrochemistry of the runoff water in a shallow stream in the study area was relatively unaffected by tunnel construction work. The stratigraphy at Kattleberg includes a layer of clay, which probably limited hydrological contact between the tunnel and the shallow waters and thus also hydrochemical changes in the stream and surrounding wetland. An observed slight lowering of pH and alkalinity in the groundwater in the bedrock was probably caused by the construction activities. The results from two short (approximately 5 m) groundwater boreholes drilled from inside the tunnel revealed contradictory results because of geological differences. One of the boreholes (drilled in rock with few fractures) was influenced significantly by the waterproofing grout (e.g. pH > 10) while the other (drilled in a fracture zone) revealed hydrochemical conditions similar to those in the surrounding bedrock (e.g. pH 7.5-8.5). Dissolved Fe and Mn were detected in the borehole, which revealed conditions similar to the surrounding bedrock. In the other borehole, the concentrations of Fe and Mn were below the detection limit. The impact of shallow waters was evident in the two boreholes through the presence of DOC. According to the requirements laid down by the Swedish authorities that were in force during construction of the tunnel, reinforcement bolts with complementary protection against corrosion would be required at this location. The Langelier saturation index was calculated for the groundwater in the bedrock and revealed increasingly corrosive properties during the construction period.
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| 8. |
- Mossmark, Fredrik, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Hydrochemical impact of construction of the western section of the Hallandsås rail tunnel in Sweden
- 2017
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Ingår i: Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1435-9537 .- 1435-9529. ; 76:2, s. 751-769
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper presents a study of the hydrochemicalchanges that took place during construction of a section ofthe Hallandsa°s rail tunnel in southwest Sweden based onmonitoring from spring 2011 to summer 2012. Leakageinto the tunnel during construction caused lowering of thegroundwater levels, which in turn resulted in a decrease inor absence of base flow in the streams. The water in thestreams became dominated by meteoric water during thedrawdown periods. Meanwhile, wetlands were aerated, andoxygen could penetrate to oxidise reduced S, releasingacids and SO4. The results for the groundwater in thebedrock differed spatially depending on local geologicalconditions. In each of the three monitored boreholes,higher redox potentials, higher concentrations of organicmatter and lower concentrations of dissolved Mn and Fewere observed. In two of the boreholes, oxidation of pyrite,FeS2, present as a fracture mineral, caused the formation ofSO4 and acids with subsequent falls in pH and alkalinity.Leakage into underground constructions generally shortensthe residence time of the groundwater significantly. Silicate weathering would thus become less important for thehydrochemistry compared to processes that occur duringshorter time frames. As regards the durability of the tunnel, the hydrochemical changes observed in two of the three boreholes indicate a more aggressive environment forseveral parameters known to increase corrosivity of steel.The recovery of the groundwater levels occurred rapidlyfollowing completion of the waterproofing systems in theTunnel. However, hydrochemical recovery with regard tomajor ions and pH occurred gradually and with an expectedduration of several years.
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| 9. |
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| 10. |
- Mossmark, Fredrik, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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Recovery from groundwater extraction in a small catchment area with crystalline bedrock and thin soil cover in Sweden
- 2008
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Ingår i: Science of the Total Environment. - : Elsevier BV. - 0048-9697 .- 1879-1026. ; 404:2-3, s. 253-261
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- An experiment has been in progress since 1997 in a small catchment area (28,000 m2) with crystalline bedrock and thin soil cover to study the conceivable impact on groundwater conditions of tunneling and the use of groundwater. The impact on hydrology and hydrochemistry from intensive extraction of groundwater at a depth of 50 m in the bedrock has been studied at Lake Gårdsjön in Sweden. The catchment area was first monitored under pristine conditions, followed by four and a half years of extraction and then a recovery phase. The geological conditions result in a low buffer capacity and high sensitivity to acidification. During the period of extraction, the surface runoff decreased by approximately 50% compared to a nearby reference area. The groundwater extraction caused increased fluctuation in groundwater levels in a wetland, which in turn caused oxidation of reduced sulfur to sulfate. The sulfate concentrations increased almost 100-fold in some instances, causing a lowering of the pH by one unit in shallow groundwater. Since extraction of the groundwater was discontinued, the pH has gradually risen and the sulfate concentrations have decreased. However, the concentration of sulfate in groundwater in the wetland has remained stable at approximately double the pre-experiment levels. Magnesium concentrations were lower after the experiment, caused by exhaustion of the magnesium pool in the wetland through acidification. The extraction of water from the bedrock shortened the retention times and increased the recharge of groundwater in the bedrock. After extraction was terminated, the groundwater levels in the boreholes recovered within a month to levels similar to those before extraction. The hydrochemistry of the bedrock groundwater, which was strongly affected by the hydrochemistry of shallow groundwater during the experiment, has also gradually begun to regain its pre-extraction signature. However, the surface runoff has remained low during the first 2 years of recovery, at about 60% of the volume compared to the unaffected catchment area. This could be explained by delayed recovery in resaturation of the shallow rock that was unsaturated during the experiment.
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| 11. |
- Taromi Sandström, Olof, et al.
(författare)
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Societal values and consequences of integrating geosystem services into subsurface planning - workshop results
- 2021
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Annan publikation (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The subsurface is not only a construction basis which provides physical space for infrastructure and the possibility to create a better surface living environment: the subsurface is a multifunctional natural resource. Apart from physical space, it provides water, energy, materials, habitats for ecosystems, support for surface life, and a repository for cultural and geological heritage, all of which can contribute to achieve the SDGs and tackle challenges to transform to a sustainable society. The subsurface is invisible in planning and policy. In the description of the SDGs, only aquifers are explicitly mentioned. In the Swedish planning legislation, there is no explicit mentioning of the subsurface. Instead of considered a resource, the subsurface is often perceived as uncertain, problematic and costly. In Sweden, as elsewhere, the first-come first-served principle applies to access to the subsurface resources, hindering strategic planning and in the end, sustainable use of precious, sometimes non-renewable resources. The development of subsurface planning, which both 1) takes the subsurface conditions into better account in the surface planning, and 2) balances the use of different subsurface resources, will create better possibilities for both urban and rural areas to transform sustainably. Introducing the concept of geosystem services into planning processes will create benefits by: making the resources of the subsurface more visible and support communication regarding the subsurface, and carifying the societal benefits of the subsurface and support a more holistic subsurface planning. Four workshops with four different topics were conducted to investigate geosystem services and societal values in different contexts together with stakeholders. The flyer presents the results from the workshops, which were used to develop a research application to the Formas Call PLanning for Transformation, Stage 2, January 2021.
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| 12. |
- Volchko, Yevheniya, 1979, et al.
(författare)
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Subsurface planning: Towards a common understanding of the subsurface as a multifunctional resource
- 2020
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Ingår i: Land Use Policy. - : Elsevier BV. - 0264-8377 .- 1873-5754. ; 90
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In response to powerful trends in technology, resource and land supply and demand, socioeconomics and geopolitics, cities are likely to increase use of the subsurface in the near future. Indeed, the subsurface and its appropriate use have been put forward as being of crucial importance if we are to achieve resilient and sustainable cities. In recent years, quite apart from being seen primarily as a construction basis to provide physical space for infrastructure and to create a better surface living environment, the subsurface has been recognised as a multifunctional natural resource, one which provides physical space, water, energy, materials, habitats for ecosystems, support for surface life, and a repository for cultural heritage and geological archives. Currently, the subsurface is often utilised according to the “first-come-first-served” principle, which hinders possibilities to take strategic decisions on prioritisation and optimisation of competing subsurface uses, as well as fair inter- and intragenerational distribution of limited natural resources. Taking a broad international perspective, this paper investigates the subsurface as a multifunctional resource from five focal points: (1) what professionals with different backgrounds mean when using different terms related to the subsurface; (2) how professionals describe the subsurface and its multiple resources, functions and services; (3) how planning of subsurface use is supported in policy and regulations; (4) how the subsurface is included in the planning process; and (5) frameworks that can support decision-making on responsible use of the subsurface. The study reveals that the subsurface must be recognised (not only by scientists but also by decision- and policy-makers and other stakeholders) as a precious and multifunctional resource requiring careful planning and sensitive management in accordance with its potential and its value to society. Utilisation of the different subsurface functions to yield services requires careful planning and a framework to support decision-makers in achieving a balance between utilisation and preservation, and between the subsurface functions themselves in the case of outright utilisation. Further, to facilitate the necessary change towards transdisciplinary work settings in the planning process and form a platform for knowledge exchange and capacity building, there is an urgent need for a common language, i.e. mutually understandable terminology, and a common understanding, i.e. an all-inclusive view on the subsurface as a complex multifunctional resource.
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