| 1. |
- Elert, Niklas, 1983-
(författare)
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Economic dynamism : essays on firm entry and firm growth
- 2014
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The topic of this thesis is economic dynamism. The five articles contribute to the literature on firm entry and firm growth. Studies are based on a dataset covering all Swedish limited liability firms between 1997 and 2010.The first article investigates conditions for firm entry in Sweden, distinguishing regular entrants from entrants that survive for at least two years, modelling the firm entry decision using count data models. While high income and a well-educated population had a positive effect, the effect was more important for surviving entrants. The second article uses a similar method, but focuses on wholesale industries and distinguishes between regular entry and in migration of firms, i.e. when an incumbent firm relocates its operations. Access to a university, many educated workers and low local taxes had positive effects. Better access to infrastructure had a strong positive effect on entrants, but it was smaller for in-migrating firms. The third article investigates if the industry context matters for whether Gibrat’s law holds, i.e. whether firm growth is independent of firm size. The law is found more likely to be rejected in industries with a high minimum efficient scale and a large number of firms located in metropolitan areas, but more likely to hold in industries with high market concentration and more group ownership. The fourth and fifth article contribute to the high-growth firms (HGFs) literature. In the fourth article it is examined whether the way HGFs are defined matters for the policy implications. It is found that the economic contributions of HGFs differ significantly depending on definition. Young firms are however more likely to be HGFs irrespective of definition. The fifth article considers the frequent argument that policymakers should target high-tech firms, i.e., firms with high R&D intensity, because such firms are thought more likely to become HGFs. We examine this assumption by studying the industry distribution of HGFs. Results indicate that industries with high R&D intensity, ceteris paribus, can be expected to have a lower share of HGFs than can industries with lower R&D intensity. By contrast, we find that HGFs are overrepresented in service industries with a high share of human capital.
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| 2. |
- Elert, Niklas, et al.
(författare)
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Start-ups and firm in-migration : Evidence from the Swedish wholesale and trade industry
- 2013
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Ingår i: The annals of regional science. - : Springer. - 0570-1864 .- 1432-0592. ; 51:2, s. 479-494
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We use a data set covering 13,471 Swedish limited liability firms in theSwedish wholesale industries during 2000–2004 to ascertain the determinants of newstart-ups and of in-migration of firms. Access to a large harbor, international airport orlarge railroad classification yard in the municipality nearly triples the number of start-ups and increases the expected number of in-migrating firms with 53%. The presenceof a university, many educated workers and low local taxes are also associated withmore start-ups and firm in-migration.
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| 3. |
- Ankarhem, Mattias, et al.
(författare)
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Do Regional Investment Grants Improve Firm Performance? : Evidence from Sweden
- 2010
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Ingår i: Technology and Investment. - Irvine, USA : Scientific Research Publishing. - 2150-4059. ; 1:3, s. 221-227
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The effect of Swedish regional investment grants during 1990-1999 on firm performance, in terms of returns on equity and number of employees, were studied using a propensity-score matching-method to control for sample selection. Firms that received grants did not perform better in terms of returns on equity when compared to matched firms in the control group. In most years, recipient firms also did not hire more employees. The results thus cast doubt on the use of regional investment grants as a general policy instrument to improve firm performance.
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| 4. |
- Aronsson, Thomas, 1963-, et al.
(författare)
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The impact of generic drug competition on brand name market shares - evidence from micro data
- 2001
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Ingår i: Review of Industrial Organization. - : Kluwer Academic Publishers. - 0889-938X .- 1573-7160. ; 19:4, s. 423-433
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper analyses how market shares for brand name drugs are affected by generic competition. The analysis is based on micro data for twelve different original drugs, which are all subject to generic competition. For five of these drugs, we find that the price of the original relative to the average price of the generic substitutes significantly affects the market share of the original drug. In addition, the introduction of a so called "reference price" system appears to have had a significant impact on the market shares of five original drugs.
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| 5. |
- Bask, Mikael, et al.
(författare)
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Market power in the expanding Nordic power market
- 2011
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Ingår i: Applied Economics. - : Taylor & Francis. - 0003-6846 .- 1466-4283. ; 43:9, s. 1035-1043
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We examine if the Nordic power market, Nord Pool, has been competitive or if electricity suppliers have had market power. Specifically, since the evolution from national markets to a multi-national and largely deregulated power market has taken place stepwise, we also examine how the degree of market power has evolved during this integration process. The Bresnahan-Lau method together with weekly data during 1996-2004 are used in the analysis, which shows that electricity suppliers have had small, but statistically significant, market power, but that the market power has been reduced as the Nord Pool area has expanded
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| 6. |
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| 7. |
- Bergman, Mats A., et al.
(författare)
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Reforming the Swedish pharmaceuticals market : Consequences for costs per defined daily dose
- 2016
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Ingår i: International Journal of Health Economics and Management. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 2199-9023 .- 2199-9031. ; 16:3, s. 201-214
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In 2009 and 2010, the Swedish pharmaceuticals market was reformed. One of the stated policy goals was to achieve low costs for pharmaceutical products dispensed in Sweden. We use price and sales data for off-patent brand-name and generic pharmaceuticals to estimate a log-linear regression model, allowing us to assess how the policy changes affected the cost per defined daily dose. The estimated effect is an 18 % cost reduction per defined daily dose at the retail level and a 34 % reduction in the prices at the wholesale level (pharmacies’ purchase prices). The empirical results suggest that the cost reductions were caused by the introduction of a price cap, an obligation to dispense the lowest-cost generic substitute available in the whole Swedish market, and the introduction of well-defined exchange groups. The reforms thus reduced the cost per defined daily dose for consumers while being advantageous also for the pharmacies, who saw their retail margins increase. However, pharmaceutical firms supplying off-patent pharmaceuticals experienced a clear reduction in the price received for their products.
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| 8. |
- Bergman, Mats A., 1964-, et al.
(författare)
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Squeezing the last drop out of your suppliers : an empirical study of market-based purchasing policies for generic pharmaceuticals
- 2017
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Ingår i: Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics. - : John Wiley & Sons. - 0305-9049 .- 1468-0084. ; 79:6, s. 969-996
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We study the effect of the degree of exclusivity for the lowest bidder on the averageprice of generic pharmaceuticals in the short and long terms. Our results indicate that a1-percentage-point gain in market share of the lowest bidder reduces average costs by 0.2%in the short term and 0.8% in the long term, but also reduces the number of firms by 1%.We find that reducing the number of firms has a strong positive (and hence counteracting)effect on average prices, a 1% reduction raising prices by approximately 1%.
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| 9. |
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| 10. |
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| 11. |
- Bergman, Mats, 1964-, et al.
(författare)
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Apoteksmarknadens omreglering : effekter på följsamhet, priser och kostnader per dygnsdos
- 2012
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Denna rapport ingår som en del i Tillväxtanalys projekt att utvärdera effekterna av omregleringen av apoteksmarknaden, särskilt vad gäller priserna. Uppdraget är en uppföljning och utvidgning av Tillväxtanalys WP/PM 2011:50 författat av Bergman och Rudholm. Syftet är att empiriskt studera hur omregleringen påverkat apotekens följsamhet, andel av försäljningen som avser billigaste generika, den så kallade månadens vara, priserna på receptbelagda läkemedel på generikamarknaden, samt vilken totalkostnadseffekt mätt som kostnaden per konsumerad dygnsdos reformen haft. Den senare aspekten är ny jämfört med den tidigare rapporten, medan övriga delar innebär en replikering.Resultaten visar entydigt att följsamheten ökat på grund av reformerna oavsett vilket följsamhetsmått vi använder. Resultaten vad gäller reformernas påverkan på leverantörernas prissättnings- och budstrategier är mera splittrade. Denna del av rapporten syftar till att förstå prissättningen på generikamarknaden och att analysera generikamarknadens funktionssätt, snarare än att analysera om apoteksmarknadsreformen totalt sett medfört en ökad eller minskad kostnad för generiska läkemedel.Resultaten från uppdragets tredje del, att estimera reformernas effekter på kostnaden per konsumerad dygnsdos visar att kostnaden sjunkit som en följd av omregleringen. Kostnadssänkningen uppskattas till ungefär 10 procent mätt i AUP och ungefär 30 procent mätt i AIP. Den större sänkningen mätt i AIP förklaras dels av marginalförstärkningen och av att en viss procentuell prissänkning i AIP ger en lägre procentuell sänkning av AUP på grund av de prisoberoende delarna i apotekens marginaler.
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| 12. |
- Bergman, Mats, 1964-, et al.
(författare)
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Reforming the Swedish pharmaceuticals market : Consequences for costs per defineddaily dose
- 2014
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In 2009, the Swedish pharmaceuticals market was reformed. One of the stated policygoals was to achieve low costs for pharmaceutical products dispensed in Sweden.Prices and sales data for off-patent brand-name and generic pharmaceuticals have beencollected, and a log-linear regression model was used to estimate how the policy changes affected thecost per defined daily dose.The estimated effect is a 19 percent cost reduction per defined daily dose at the retail leveland a 35 percent reduction in the prices at the wholesale level (pharmacies' purchase prices). Theempirical results suggest that half of the retail-level price reduction is due to the introduction of a pricecap for products going off patent and half is due to other components of the reform. Measured at thewholesale level the latter effect is larger than the former.The reforms reduced the cost per defined daily dose for consumers while beingadvantageous also for the pharmacies, who saw their retail margins increase due to the reform.However, pharmaceutical firms supplying off-patent pharmaceuticals experienced a clear reduction inthe price received for their products.
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| 13. |
- Bergman, Mats, et al.
(författare)
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The relative importance of actual and potential competition: Empirical evidence from the pharmaceuticals market
- 2003
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Ingår i: Journal of industrial economics. - : Wiley. - 0022-1821 .- 1467-6451. ; 51, s. 455-467
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We study actual and potential competition and other factors that determine price paths of brand-name drugs in the Swedish pharmaceuticals market. The results indicate that the price of the incumbent product is lowered by potential competition, entry of (additional) generics, and the introduction of a so-called reference-price system. We also identify a 'ratchet' effect, through which price regulation makes entry-deterring limit-pricing credible.
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| 14. |
- Blom, Carin, et al.
(författare)
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Den osynliga värdeskaparens framtid
- 2011
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Ingår i: Ekonomiska samfundets tidskrift. - Helsingfors : Ekonomiska Samfundet i Finland. - 0013-3183 .- 2323-1378. ; :3, s. 157-168
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Hos gemene man anses partihandel ofta vara detsamma som ledet mellan producent och detaljhandlare. Partihandeln är emellertid betydligt mer komplex än så. Partihandeln består av flera olika delbranscher som kan vara mycket olika varandra. En del partihandelsbranscher ligger närmare detaljhandeln, medan andra har mycket gemensamt med tillverkningsindustrin. I denna artikel presenteras statstik över den Svenska partihandelns betydelse i ekonomin, dess geografiska spridning illustreras grafiskt, och slutligen genomförs tre fallstudier av Svenska partihandelsföretag. I de tre fallstudierna anges några faktorer ha större betydelse än andra för partihandlarnas framtid. Dessa faktorer, som diskuteras utförligt i artikeln, är bland annat teknologisk utveckling, internationalisering, och en förändrad konkurrenssituation.
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| 15. |
- Bornhäll, Anders, 1984-, et al.
(författare)
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Employment Protection Legislation and Firm Growth : Evidence from a Natural Experiment
- 2014
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- A natural experiment is used to identify the causal relationship between employment protection legislation and fi…rm growth. The natural experiment occurred in Sweden in 2001, when an exemption made it possible for fi…rms with less than eleven employees to exclude two workers from the last-in-fi…rst-out principle when dismissing personnel. The estimated average treatment effect of the reform show that the number of employees increased with 0.135 percent in fi…rms with 5-9 employees relative to fi…rms with 10-15 employees, which corresponds to over 5,000 additional jobs per year created by the reform. Firms with ten employees, just below the size threshold, became 3.4 percent less likely to increase their workforce to a level surpassing the threshold, indicating that the last-in-…first-out rule prevented these …firms from growing. Thus, employment protection legislation seems to act as a growth barrier for small fi…rms.
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| 16. |
- Bornhäll, Anders, 1984-, et al.
(författare)
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Employment protection legislation and firm growth : evidence from a natural experiment
- 2017
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Ingår i: Industrial and Corporate Change. - : Oxford University Press. - 0960-6491 .- 1464-3650. ; 26:1, s. 169-185
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A Swedish reform in 2001 made it possible for firms with less than 11 employees to exclude two from the last-in-first-out principle in case of layoffs. The reform increased employment growth with over 4000 additional jobs per year among firms with five to nine employees. Firms with 10 employees became 3.4 percentage points less likely to increase their workforce, indicating that the introduced threshold kept them from growing. Thus, employment protection legislation seems to act as a growth barrier for small firms.
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| 17. |
- Bornhäll, Anders, et al.
(författare)
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Osynliga jobbskapare : En tillväxtpotential för svensk detaljhandel?
- 2015
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Den stora merparten av alla detaljhandelsföretag karakteriseras av ingen eller en marginell tillväxt av antalet anställda. Dessa företag betraktas ofta som en homogen grupp bestående av företag med inga tillväxtambitioner och som näringspolitiken inte bör inriktas gentemot. I denna rapport visar vi dock att de företag som inte växer i själva verket är mycket heterogena. Mer än tio procent av alla detaljhandelsföretag som inte växer under en treårsperiod kännetecknas av en relativt hög lönsamhet. Dessa företag kallar vi för de sovande gasellerna eftersom tidigare studier har visat att hög lönsamhet är en viktig faktor för en långsiktigt hållbar framtida tillväxt av antalet anställda. Andelen sovande gaseller inom detaljhandeln är cirka 1,5 till 2,35 procentenheter fler än i ekonomin som helhet. Hälften av dessa detaljhandelsföretag kommer inte heller att öka antalet anställda i kommande perioder, trots att de fortsätter att ha en hög lönsamhet eller en lönsamhet i paritet med det genomsnittliga företaget. Detta visar att det finns en dold tillväxtpotential inom detaljhandeln i Sverige som inte har realiserat. Resultaten från studien visar också att de sovande gasellerna inom detaljhandeln inte är slumpmässigt dragna ur företagspopulationen, utan att det framförallt är små företag som väljer att inte expandera verksamheten mellan två treårsperioder. De sovande gasellerna är inte heller slumpmässigt fördelade geografiskt i Sverige. De kommuner som har en hög andel sovande gaseller inom detaljhandeln under en tidsperiod tenderar att även ha det i kommande tidsperioder, vilket indikerar att det finns geografiska förklaringar till varför vissa företag inte växer trots att de har en god lönsamhet. Avsaknaden av tillväxt hos dessa företag kan antingen förklaras av att de inte har några tillväxtambitioner, oavsett villkoren för företagande; alternativt att de vill växa, men inte under rådande förutsättningar. Om den senare förklaringen är giltig kan reformer som minskar tillväxtbarriärer för detaljhandelsföretagen generera många nya arbetstillfällen.
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| 18. |
- Bornhäll, Anders, et al.
(författare)
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Sleeping gazelles : High profits but no growth
- 2014
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Ingår i: Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research. - 0740-7416. ; 34:17, s. 1-16
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Among 104,231 limited liability firms in Sweden with at least two employees during 1997- 2010, almost 10% did not hire new employees in any given 3-year period despite having high profits. Nearly half of these firms continued to have high or medium profits in the next threeyear period, but still no growth. Regression analysis indicates that these firms were not randomly distributed; rather they were small and young, did not belong to an enterprise group, and operated in local markets with high profit-opportunities. We conclude that it might be more beneficial to focus policy towards these firms instead of towards a few high-growth firms that, having just grown exponentially, may not be best positioned to grow further.
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| 19. |
- Bornhäll, Anders, et al.
(författare)
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Sleeping gazelles : The unseen job creators?
- 2015
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Ingår i: Entrepreneurial growth. - : Emerald Group Publishing Limited. - 9781785600470 - 9781785600463 ; , s. 161-185
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- High-growth firms have recently received considerable attention in the firm growth literature. These firms might have grown despite the existence of growth barriers, and evidence also suggests that, having already grown exponentially, they may not be in the best position to grow further. Policies targeting high-growth firms may therefore be misdirected. We argue that entrepreneurship researchers should concentrate more on firms that are not hiring, despite having high profits. We call these firms “sleeping gazelles,” and demonstrate that they represented almost 10% of all limited liability firms in Sweden from 1997 to 2010. Nearly half of these firms continued to earn high or moderate profits in subsequent three-year periods, while still displaying no growth. Regression analyses indicate that these firms were significantly smaller, older, more likely to be active in industries with high profit uncertainty, and more likely to be located in less densely populated municipalities than were corresponding growing firms.
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| 20. |
- Bornhäll, Anders, 1984-, et al.
(författare)
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The unseen job creators : Growth potential among non-growing …firms
- 2014
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Among 104,231 limited liability fi…rms in Sweden with at least two employees during 1997-2010, almost 10 % did not hire new employees in any given 3-year period despite having high profi…ts. Nearly half of these …firms continued to have high or medium pro…fits in the next three-year period, but still no growth. Regression analysis indicates that these fi…rms were not randomly distributed; rather they were small and young, did not belong to an enterprise group, and operated in local markets with high profi…t-opportunities. We conclude that it might be more benefi…cial to focus policy towards these …firms instead of towards a few high-growth fi…rms that, having just grown exponentially, may not be best positioned to grow further.
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| 21. |
- Bornhäll, Anders, 1984-
(författare)
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Unseen job creators and firm growth barriers : the role of capital constraints and seniority rules
- 2017
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The topic of this thesis is to provide a deeper understanding of how the institutional framework affects firms’ hiring decisions.The first article focuses on a group of firms, called sleeping gazelles, that do not grow despite having high profits. Sleeping gazelles constitute a much larger share of the firm population than that of high-growth firms. If it is growth barriers that are hindering these firms from hiring more employees, many new jobs could be created if these barriers were removed. To investigate the effects of one of the suggested growth barriers in the literature, the second article, focuses on whether small-firm growth is hampered by lack of capital. Using survey data from business owners matched with register data, we find that firms may face a capital constraint paradox, whereby the supply of external capital might be sufficient, but firm owners might refrain from accessing it due to fear of losing control of their companies. The third article investigates whether employment protection acts as a growth barrier in Sweden. Using a reform of the Swedish last-in-first-out (LIFO) rule, we estimate the causal effects from a liberalization of the employment protection. We find that firm growth increased because of the reform and that a more expansive reform could provide new job opportunities and increase overall employment. The LIFO rule was introduced to protect older workers. The fourth article investigates whether the reform weakened the labor market position of these workers. It is found that more young individuals who were unemployed or previously not in the workforce were hired as a consequence of the reform, showing that the reform lowered youth unemployment. There is no indication of older workers leaving the workforce or becoming unemployed to any greater extent after the reform. The fifth article show that the positive effects of the reform were limited to native workers, with no effects on the labor market position of immigrants. The effects depend on the relative insider-status of employees, so that groups of employees who are closer to being insiders benefit more from less-strict employment protection legislation than groups that are further from being insiders.
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| 22. |
- Brandt, Daniel, et al.
(författare)
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Firm entry in the Swedish wholesale trade sector : dDoes market definition matter?
- 2014
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Ingår i: The annals of regional science. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0570-1864 .- 1432-0592. ; 53:3, s. 703-717
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Firm entry into local markets has often been studied using administrative areas such as municipalities as the assumed relevant markets. However, administrative areas and the actual relevant markets based on local demand for firms’ products often do not coincide, which could bias the results of studies treating administrative areas as the relevant markets. Based on a behavioral assumption regarding how retailers act when purchasing products from wholesale trade firms, we create alternative markets using Voronoi diagrams. We then compare the empirical results of investigating the determinants of firm entry using municipalities as the relevant markets with the results obtained using Voronoi markets. The results indicate that, in both cases, the same variables are statistically significant in affecting entry, though the estimated effects differ in size.
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| 23. |
- Carling, Kenneth, 1967-, et al.
(författare)
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Market integration in Nordic online retail markets : Do cross-border transaction costs still matter?
- 2023
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- If online retail markets are integrated, in that cost shocks in one country also affect pricing in other countries, asymmetric shocks to any one country in the region will spill over to neighboring countries as well. Using web-scraped productlevel prices from a group of retail firms selling identical products in at least two of the four Nordic markets under study, we investigate if national markets are segmented at the borders. Contrary to previous studies, we use differences in product characteristics to divide the data into products that are easily transported across borders and those that are not. At the extreme end of the transportability spectrum, we investigate market integration for four types of games for computers or game consoles that are delivered via downloads, where the cross-border transaction costs should be close to zero. Our results show that markets for product categories where cross-border transaction costs are high are also segmented at the border, while markets for product categories that can easily be traded andtransported between countries are not. We find an even higher level of market integration for games delivered via downloads than for the same games sold through traditional channels. As such, cross-border transaction costs still matter for market segmentation, but only for the sub-set of products where such costs are high.
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| 24. |
- Carling, Kenneth, et al.
(författare)
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Measuring CO2 emissions induced by online and brick-and-mortar retailing
- 2014
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- We develop a method for empirically measuring the difference in carbon footprint between traditional and online retailing (“e-tailing”) from entry point to a geographical area to consumer residence. The method only requires data on the locations of brick-and-mortar stores, online delivery points, and residences of the region’s population, and on the goods transportation networks in the studied region. Such data are readily available in most countries, so the method is not country or region specific. The method has been evaluated using data from the Dalecarlia region in Sweden, and is shown to be robust to all assumptions made. In our empirical example, the results indicate that the average distance from consumer residence to a brick-and-mortar retailer is 48.54 km in the studied region, while the average distance to an online delivery point is 6.7 km. The results also indicate that e-tailing increases the average distance traveled from the regional entry point to the delivery point from 47.15 km for a brick-and-mortar store to 122.75 km for the online delivery points. However, as professional carriers transport the products in bulk to stores or online delivery points, which is more efficient than consumers’ transporting the products to their residences, the results indicate that consumers switching from traditional to e-tailing on average reduce their CO2 footprints by 84% when buying standard consumer electronics products.
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| 25. |
- Carling, Kenneth, et al.
(författare)
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Measuring transport related CO2 emissions induced by online and brick-and-mortar retailing
- 2015
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Ingår i: Transportation Research Part D. - : Elsevier BV. - 1361-9209 .- 1879-2340. ; 40, s. 28-42
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We develop a method for empirically measuring the difference in transport related carbon footprint between traditional and online retailing (“e-tailing”) from entry point to a geographical area to consumer residence. The method only requires data on the locations of brick-and-mortar stores, online delivery points, and residences of the region’s population, and on the goods transportation networks in the studied region. Such data are readily available in most countries. The method has been evaluated using data from the Dalecarlia region in Sweden, and is shown to be robust to all assumptions made. In our empirical example, the results indicate that the average distance from consumer residence to a brick-and-mortar retailer is 48.54 km in the studied region, while the average distance to an online delivery point is 6.7 km. The results also indicate that e-tailing increases the average distance traveled from the regional entry point to the delivery point from 47.15 km for a brick-and-mortar store to 122.75 km for the online delivery points. However, as professional carriers transport the products in bulk to stores or online delivery points, which is more efficient than consumers’ transporting the products to their residences, the results indicate that consumers switching from traditional to e-tailing on average reduce their transport CO2 footprints by 84% when buying standard consumer electronics products.
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