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Enumeration	Reference	Cover	Find
1.	Ayedh, H. M., et al. (author) Controlling the carbon vacancy in 4H-SiC by thermal processing 2018 In: ECS Transactions. - : Electrochemical Society Inc.. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. ; , s. 91-97 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract The carbon vacancy (Vc) is perhaps the most prominent point defect in silicon carbide (SiC) and it is an efficient charge carrier lifetime killer in high-purity epitaxial layers of 4H-SÌC. The Vc concentration needs to be controlled and minimized for optimum materials and device performance, and an approach based on post-growth thermal processing under C-rich ambient conditions is presented. It utilizes thermodynamic equilibration and after heat treatment at 1500 °C for 1 h, the Vc concentration is shown to be reduced by a factor-25 relative to that in as-grown state-of-the-art epi-layers. Concurrently, a considerable enhancement of the carrier lifetime occurs throughout the whole of >40 urn thick epi-layers.
2.	Abedin, Ahmad, et al. (author) Epitaxial growth of Ge strain relaxed buffer on Si with low threading dislocation density 2016 In: ECS Transactions. - : Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607685395 ; , s. 615-621 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Epitaxial Ge with low dislocation density is grown on a low temperature grown Ge seed layer on Si substrate by reduced pressure chemical vapor deposition. The surface topography measured by AFM shows that the strain relaxation occurred through pit formation which resulted in freezing the defects at Ge/Si interface. Moreover a lower threading dislocation density compared to conventional strain relaxed Ge buffers on Si was observed. We show that by growing the first layer at temperatures below 300 °C a surface roughness below 1 nm can be achieved together with carrier mobility enhancement. The different defects densities revealed from SECCO and Iodine etching shows that the defects types have been changed and SECCO is not always trustable.
3.	Beale, S. B., et al. (author) Combined two-phase co-flow and counter-flow in a gas channel/porous transport layer assembly 2020. - 9 In: PRiME 2020 : Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells and Electrolyzers 20 (PEFC and E 20) - Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells and Electrolyzers 20 (PEFC and E 20). - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607685395 ; 98:9, s. 305-315 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract This paper considers a detailed numerical analysis of combined liquid-gas co-flow in a gas channel, with liquid-gas counter-flow in a porous transport layer, as is typically found on the cathode side of a polymer electrolyte fuel cell. The geometry is obtained by digital reconstruction of nano-computer tomography images. From this, the domain is tessellated with an unstructured castellated or octree mesh, upon which the equations of mass and momentum are solved by means of a volume of fluid method. Liquid water is produced from an electrode where gaseous oxygen is simultaneously consumed by electrochemical reduction; Liquid-gas counter flow in the porous transport layer results in liquid drops being entrained in co-flow in the gas channels and convected by the gas downstream.
4.	Carlson, Annika, et al. (author) Kinetic parameters in anion-exchange membrane fuel cells 2019 In: ECS Transactions. - : Electrochemical Society Inc.. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. - 9781607685395 ; , s. 649-659 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Understanding limitations in an operating AEMFC is essential to .enhance the technology. Here the electrode processes are studied experimentally as well as by two physics-based models taking the porosity of the electrodes into account. The aim is to use the models to determine kinetic parameters specific for in-situ operation. The models can also be used to explain the experimental .behavior. From the impedance model of a symmetric H2/H2 cell it is shown that the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) proceeds through the Tafel-Volmer reaction pathway, with the hydrogen adsorption as the slower reaction step. Based on the HOR model a •steady-state model of an O2/H2 cell is used to evaluate data from 14 experimental I-V curves, obtained for different gas partial pressures and catalyst loadings, in order to study the effects of the oxygen reduction reaction and overall cell limitations. The results show that the oxygen reduction reaction kinetics limit the cell performance for low current densities. However, at higher currents the uneven current distribution and locally low hydrogen adsorption at the anode increasingly affect the overall performance. Uneven current distribution is also observed at the cathode and likely caused by insufficient effective ionomer conductivity.
5.	Chen, J. T., et al. (author) Carbon-doped GaN on SiC materials for low-memory-effect devices 2016 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607685395 ; 75:12, s. 61-65, s. 61-65 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract AlGaN/GaN on SiC HEMT structures suitable for high power, high frequency applications are demonstrated. The material manifests record breaking thermal management and electron mobility. Moreover, thanks to the fact that the buffer layer is doped with carbon, the memory effect of processed devices is very low making system design and manufacturing significantly easier and less expensive.
6.	Debela, A. M., et al. (author) Functionalized deoxynucleotides and DNA primers for electrochemical diagnostics of disease predispostions 2017 In: ECS Transactions. - : Electrochemical Society Inc.. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. - 9781607685395 ; , s. 1873-1883, s. 1873-1883 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Redox labeled DNAs are of increasing interest for the fabrication of next generation molecular tools. In the present work we are investigating the use of various redox labeled dNTPs, ddNTPs and DNA primers for use in detection of diseases. We have reported the use of Polyoxometalate (POM) labeled DNA primers and dNTPs for use in PCR and subsequently used for direct electrochemical detection of PCR products. The use of POM labeled DNAs in PCR enabled us to check the compatibility with polymerases and PCR incorporability of the modified DNAs. Furthermore we have investigated the solid-phase array based primer extension (é-PEX) with redox labelled ddNTPs (ferrocene (Fc), anthraquinone (AQ) phenothiazine (PTZ) and methylene blue (MB)) to prove the strategy of detection of single nucleotide polymorphisms using the labeled ddNTPs. This strategy will allow the development of cost-effective, rapid and user-friendly platform for the screening of known and unknown genetic mutations.
7.	Espinoza Andaluz, Mayken, et al. (author) A-Asterisk Algorithm as an Alternative to Evaluate the Geometric Tortuosity in Digitally Created SOFC Anodes 2021. - 1 In: 17th International Symposium on Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, SOFC 2021. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. - 9781607685395 ; 103:1, s. 1665-1671 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) contains complex materials that facilitate the energy conversion process. The diffusion media play an important role in facilitating the reactant gases to reach the electrochemical active regions. Porosity and tortuosity are crucial parameters describing the diffusion to be analyzed in a SOFC anode. This paper aims to evaluate the feasibility of using the A-asterisk algorithm to compute the geometric tortuosity within SOFC anodes. A three-dimensional structure, which is digitally created, represents the SOFC anode, in which the possible paths that follow the fluid flow are analyzed. A-asterisk algorithm is used to generate possible paths, and therefore the geometric tortuosity can be computed considering an averaged distance. A tortuosity-porosity correlation is proposed, and the results are compared with previous studies. Results show that the A-asterisk algorithm is a capable algorithm to evaluate the geometric tortuosity values in SOFC anodes with different particle size distribution and porosities.
8.	Espinoza-Andaluz, M., et al. (author) Pore-scale analysis of diffusion transport parameters in digitally reconstructed SOFC anodes with gradient porosity in the main flow direction 2017. - 1 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. - 9781607685395 ; 78, s. 2785-2796 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract One of the promising devices to obtain electrical and thermal energy with considerable high efficiency is the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). The electrical energy is the result of the electrochemical reactions that occur inside the fuel cell (FC) when the reactant gases reach the so-called three-phase boundary (TPB). The nonhomogeneous and anisotropic characteristics of the layer between the gas channel and the TPB region require a pore-scale analysis to understand the effect of microstructural configurations. The purpose of this paper is to provide understanding of the behavior of the fluid flow through the digitally reconstructed SOFC anodes, with gradient porosity in the main flow direction, using the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM). The impact of the porosity distribution over the fluid behavior is determined for different digitally created SOFC anodes. The SOFC anodes are analyzed keeping the total porosity constant, but varying the local porosity in the flow direction. The impact of a gradient porosity over the gas-phase tortuosity and the normalized effective diffusion coefficient are presented.
9.	Espinoza, R., et al. (author) Temperature-Dependent Study for Electrochemical Surface Area on a Catalyst Layer Used in a PEFC 2022 In: Materials for Low Temperature Electrochemical Systems 8. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. - 9781607685395 ; 108:7, s. 111-118 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract The total of catalytic particles is often unavailable to participate in the electrochemical reactions in a PEFC, which limits the PEFC performance. The electrochemical surface area (ECSA) becomes an important metric to diagnose the catalyst layer's performance and evaluate the development of new electrode materials to achieve better overall efficiency. This work intends to analyze the effects of a temperature sweep on the ECSA and determine the best model that fits the trend based on obtained results from in-situ cyclic voltammetry (CV) tests. The experiment was carried out using a single PEFC of 25 cm2 with a catalyst layer of 0.5mg Pt/cm2 and Nafion® 112 membrane, using hydrogen and nitrogen as reactant gases at 100% relative humidity (RH). The results show a loss of ECSA about 14% in the temperature range evaluated. Besides, it was found that a linear function is adequate to model the correlation based on the experimental data obtained.
10.	Falk Windisch, Hannes, 1984, et al. (author) Metallic thin-film Co- and Ce/Co-coated steels as interconnect material in IT-SOFC 2017 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607685395 ; 78:1, s. 1607-1614 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Cr vaporization, oxide scale growth, and the electrical scale resistance (ASR) were studied at 650°C on coated interconnects intended for IT-SOFC applications. The custom-made SOFC interconnect steel Sanergy HT was coated with thin-film Co- and Ce/Co-coatings and compared to the less expensive substrate steel AISI 441 which was coated with Ce/Co and a 15-20 μm thick commercial MCO-coating. All coated materials mitigated Cr vaporization, and due to the very thin chromia scales formed at the low exposure temperature, ASR values below 10 mΩcm 2 were measured for all materials after 500 h at 650°C. The results in this study show that thin-film metallic Co- and Ce/Co-coated steels show excellent properties as interconnect materials for IT-SOFCs. Thick MCO-coatings can also be used at low temperatures; however, the coating method might be a critical issue for lowtemperature applications.
11.	Falk Windisch, Hannes, 1984, et al. (author) Pre-coated Ce/Co-coated steel: Mitigating Cr vaporization, increasing corrosion resistance at competitive cost 2015 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607685395 ; 68:1, s. 1617-1623 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Cr vaporization and oxide scale growth are probably the two most detrimental degradation mechanisms associated to Cr2O3-forming alloys as interconnect material in SOFC. Both issues can be improved by the application of coatings. However, the use of coatings increase material cost. To reduce coating costs it is suggested that large amounts of steel can be coated before shaping the pre-coated material into an interconnect. The present study investigates the effectiveness of thin Ce and Co coatings on the cost effective steel AISI 441 with respect to Cr vaporization and corrosion resistance. Furthermore, the effect of mechanical deformation of the coated steel is examined. The results revealed that when the pre-coated steel is deformed, large cracks are formed. However, upon exposure those cracks can heal forming a continuous surface oxide rich in Co and Mn. As an effect of the rapid healing, no increase in Cr vaporization was measured.
12.	Habib, K., et al. (author) Resistance values of aluminum oxide film in situ during anodization of aluminum by fabry-pérot interferometry 2017 In: ECS Transactions. - : Electrochemical Society Inc.. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. - 9781607685395 ; , s. 1221-1229 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract A combination of Fabry-Pérot interferometry and the DC electrochemical method have been used for the first time, in situ, to measure the resistance of aluminum oxide films in 2% sulfuric acid solution. Values of the corresponding resistance of the obtained Al2O3 film thickness were determined during anodization of aluminum (Al) in 2% H2SO4. The obtained resistance values were verified by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and holographic interferometry. The corresponding resistance (2.4 x109 Ohms) to the final thickness of the aluminum oxide film was found in an agreement with the resistance value that was measured by holographic interferometry, 2.54x109 Ohms, in 2% H2SO4. On the contrary, the corresponding resistance (2.4 x109 Ohms) to the final thickness of the aluminum oxide film was found twice the value of the resistance that was measured by the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), 1.25x109 Ohms, in 2% H2SO4.
13.	Hu, Lan, et al. (author) Electrode kinetics of the Ni porous electrode for hydrogen production in the molten carbonate electrolysis cell (MCEC) 2015 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607685395 ; , s. 93-98 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract The hydrogen evolution reaction in molten carbonate salts is an important process in the development of the molten carbonate electrolysis cell (MCEC). In the present study the kinetics of hydrogen production in the Ni porous electrode in a MCEC is investigated. The general procedure is to determine the reaction orders of hydrogen, carbon dioxide and water. For this purpose steady-state polarization data were recorded under different gas compositions and temperatures. The exchange current densities were calculated from the slopes of the polarization curves at low overpotential. On the basis of that, the partial pressure dependencies of hydrogen, carbon dioxide and water could be determined in the electrolysis operation.
14.	Jaramillo-Fernandez, Juliana, et al. (author) Tuning of heat transport across thin films of polycrystalline AlN via multiscale structural defects 2015 In: ECS Transactions. - : Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607685395 ; , s. 53-64 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract The effective thermal conductivity of nanocrystalline films of AlN with inhomogeneous microstructure is investigated experimentally and theoretically. This is done by measuring the thermal conductivity of the samples with the 3-omega method and characterizing their microstructure by means of electron microscopy. The relative effect of the microstructure and the interface thermal resistance on the thermal conductivity is quantified through an analytical model. Thermal measurements showed that when the thickness of an AlN film is reduced from 1460 to 270 nm, its effective thermal conductivity decreases from 8.21 to 3.12 WYm-1?K-1, which is two orders of magnitude smaller than its bulk counterpart value. It is shown that both the size effects of the phonon mean free paths and the intrinsic thermal resistance resulting from the inhomogeneous microstructure predominate for thicker films, while the contribution of the interface thermal resistance strengthens as the film thickness is scaled down. The obtained results demonstrate that the structural inhomogeneity in polycrystalline AlN films can be efficiently used to tune their cross- plane thermal conductivity. In addition, thermal conductivity measurements of epitaxially grown InP layers on silicon using Raman spectroscopy are reported.
15.	Nugehalli Sachitanand, Rakshith, 1984, et al. (author) Coatings for SOFC interconnects in fuel side environments 2015 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607685395 ; 68:1, s. 1575-1580 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract This study focuses on examining the effect of PVD coatings on the oxidation performance of interconnects in fuel side environments. The ferritic steels Sanergy HT and AISI 441 were coated with nanoscale thick rare earth oxides of Ce and La. Additionally, Sanergy HT was also coated with Cu, Co and Ce/Co. The samples were exposed at 850°C in Ar-5% H2-3% H2O in a tubular furnace. Chemical analysis on the samples was subsequently performed with SEM/EDX and XRD. It was established that the Ce and La coatings brought about a ≈4x reduction in the oxidation rate while the presence of a metallic phase in the oxide (Cu and Co) negatively affected oxidation performance. Further, the La coating resulted in the formation of a perovskite phase, showing that the intrinsic electronic properties of the oxide can be tailored using coatings.
16.	Santana, Jordy, et al. (author) Temperature Impact on the Internal Resistance of a Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Considering the Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Diagnosis 2020. - 1 In: Fuel Cell Seminar and Energy Exposition 2019. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607685395 ; 96:1, s. 183-190 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract A polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC) is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy presents in the hydrogen into electricity and heat having as by product only water. The energy conversion process is carried out in a clean and noiseless manner. Depending on the applications, a PEFC works at different operating temperature. In this study, the internal resistance of a PEFC is evaluated by using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) at moderate low current density, i.e., 0.5 A/cm2, in the temperature range of 40-80°C. The evaluation is carried out considering frequencies between 3.1kHz and 1Hz. An equivalent Randle circuit is considered as adjusted model and the Nyquist and Bode diagram were obtained to analyze the internal resistance. Results show that the ohmic resistance and charge transport increase when the operating temperature is low, decreasing the cell performance. A voltage drop of 42 mV was obtained for the evaluated temperature sweep. At the same time, it was demonstrated that the double layer capacitance increases at high temperatures, increasing its operating performance.
17.	Wang, G., et al. (author) Integration of selective epitaxial growth of SiGe/Ge layers in 14nm node FinFETs 2016 In: ECS Transactions. - : Electrochemical Society Inc.. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607685395 ; , s. 273-279 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract In this study, the process integration of SiGe selective epitaxy on source/drain and SiGe/Ge bilayers selectively epitaxy on replacement Si channel regions for 14 nm node FinFETs has been presented. The epi-quality, layer profile and strain amount of the selectively grown SiGe and Ge layers were also investigated by means of various characterization tools. A series of prebaking experiments were performed for different temperatures in order to in-situ clean the Si fins prior to the SiGe S/D epitaxy. It was also found that a SiGe layer with graded Ge content was deposited as the strain relaxed buffer (SRB) layer in the channel trench prior to the Ge layer filling in the small trenches to make the void defect free.
18.	Zhang, Shidong, et al. (author) Simple and complex polymer electrolyte fuel cell stack models : A comparison 2018. - 13 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. - 9781607685395 ; 86, s. 287-300 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract In this paper, two distinct polymer electrolyte fuel cell stack models are constructed: a detailed numerical model (DNM) employing a fine-scale computational mesh and a coarse-mesh approach based on a distributed resistance analogy (DRA) where diffusion terms in the transport equations are replaced by rate terms. Both methods are applied to a 5-cell, high-temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cell stack with an active area of 200 cm2 per cell. The polarization curve and local current density distributions from both the DRA and DNM are compared with experimental data, finding good agreement. Temperature, pressure, Nernst potential, and species distributions are also exhibited. The DNM displays details of fine-scale local extrema not captured by the DRA; however, the latter requires orders of magnitude less computer processor power and memory for execution. Both methods provide much finer-scale results than present experimental techniques.
19.	Alnegren, Patrik, 1988, et al. (author) Degradation of Ferritic steel interconnects in SOEC environments 2013 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 57:1, s. 2261-2270 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract This study investigates the corrosion performance of selected ferritic steels in simulated solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) environments for exposure times up 500 h. Ferritic steels have many properties that are desirable for interconnects but suffer from oxidation and chromium evaporation over time. Four different FeCr alloys have been exposed in different concentrations of dry O2 (anode side) and in 34 % H2O -3 % H2-Ar (cathode side) at 850 °C and gravimetrical measurements have been performed to study oxidation rates. Chromium evaporation has been measured and compared for the oxygen containing environments. Chromium evaporation was found to vary largely with oxygen partial pressure, while the oxidation rate of the steels did not vary substantially in the different oxygen partial pressures. Differences in oxidation behavior of the steels were observed between the exposures in dry O2 and in 34 % H2O -3 % H2 -Ar. Both reduced and increased oxidation rates were observed in the cathode side atmosphere compared to the oxygen side atmosphere for different materials.
20.	Andersson, Martin, et al. (author) Analysis of Microscopic Anode Structure Effects on an Anode-Supported SOFC Including Knudsen Diffusion 2011 In: SOFC12. - : The Electrochemical Society. ; 35, s. 1799-1809 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract In this study a two dimensional CFD (COMSOL Multiphysics) is employed to study the effect of anode microscopic structures on the transport phenomena and reactions for an anode-supported solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). FCs can be considered as energy devices, involving multiple processes, such as (electro-) chemical reactions, heat exchange, gas- and ionic transport. All these complex processes are strongly integrated, needing modeling as an important tool to understand the couplings between mass-, heat-, momentum transport and chemical reactions. For the porous material, the Knudsen diffusion is taken into account in this study. The chemical- and electrochemical reaction rates depend on temperature, material structure, catalytic activity, degradation and partial pressure among others. It is found that the anode thickness and also the anode pore size need to be optimized to achieve high cell efficiency, when the Knudsen diffusion effects are included.
21.	Andersson, M., et al. (author) Coupling of lattice boltzmann and volume of fluid approaches to study the droplet behavior at the gas diffusion layer/gas channel interface 2018. - 13 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. - 9781607688600 ; 86, s. 329-336 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract A typical polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC) flow field consists of micro/minichannels. The continues removal of liquid water from the cathode channels is a critical topic, as water droplets forming in the channels may block the transport of gaseous oxygen to the active sites, which not only gives an uneven current distribution and substantial loss of performance, but also, increases degradation rates and unstable operation. Water generated by the electrochemical reactions condenses, depending on temperature mainly, into liquid form, potentially flooding various part of the PEFC. The aim of this work is to obtain an increased understanding of the droplet behavior at the gas diffusion layer (GDL) interface with the gas channels in PEFCs by the coupling of Lattice Boltzmann (LB) and Volume of Fluid (VOF) approaches. A multiscale environment is established with input parameters in the VOF model being extracted from in-house LB calculations. It is clear that the contact angle as well as the size of the liquid droplet vary with positions at the GDL surface, depending on the stochastic GDL geometry. A VOF model describing one straight channel with one gas inlet, one liquid inlet (at the GDL surface) and one two-phase outlet is employed.
22.	Andersson, Martin, et al. (author) Review on Dimensionless Numbers Relevant for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells 2016 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. ; 75:14, s. 547-552 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract With the concern about global warming, air pollution and energy security, the prospect of using polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) in future sustainable and renewable energy conversion systems has achieved substantial momentum. Dimensionless numbers can be determined before construction of a model is started, to make simple estimations on the transport processes, for example, within the porous PEFC GDL. Microstructural parameters, such as tortuosities and contact angles, are frequently treated as fitting parameters used in the respective governing equations, such that unrealistic values could be assumed or properties could not be representative of the corresponding microstructure. This treatment can be avoided if the origin of the expression is clearly clarified and if geometric properties are not used for fitting. Instead, it is recommended to, when needed, introduce parameters, without a geometrical meaning used only for fitting the model to experimental data, such as the pre-exponential factor in the advanced microstructural approach.
23.	Andersson, Martin, et al. (author) Three-Dimensional Design Optimization Of An Anode-Supported SOFC Using FEM 2013 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 57:1, s. 2485-2494 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Abstract in UndeterminedSolid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are promising as energy producing devices, which at this stage of development will require extensive analysis and benefit from numerical modeling. A 3D model is developed based on the FEM for a single cell planar SOFC design optimization. Ion, electron, heat, gas-phase species and momentum transport equations are implemented and coupled to the kinetics of electrochemical reactions. High current density spots are identified, where the electron transport distance is short and the oxygen concentration is high. The relatively thin cathode results in a significant oxygen mole fraction gradient in the direction normal to the main flow direction. The electron transport especially within the cathode is found to be limiting for the electrochemical reactions at positions far from the channel walls (interconnect ribs). It is concluded that an increased pore size in the cathode support layer increases the current density more than an increased pore size in the anode support layer.
24.	Bakowski, Mietek, et al. (author) Merits of buried grid technology for advanced SiC device concepts 2011 In: ECS Transactions. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 41:8, s. 155-62 Journal article (peer-reviewed)
25.	Bakowski, Mietek, et al. (author) Merits of Buried Grid Technology for SiC JBS Diodes 2012 In: ECS Transactions. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 50:3, s. 415-424 Journal article (peer-reviewed)
26.	Bengtsson, Stefan, 1961 (author) Wafer bonding: A retrospective 2010 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781566778237 ; 33:4, s. 429-439 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Wafer bonding has become well-known and widely used as the process of adhesion of two flat mirror-polished wafers without the use of any intermediate adhesive layer. Today, it is used as a versatile tool in a wide variety of scientific fields and the technique has reach industrial maturity in particular for the manufacturing of Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI) materials, but also in other fields, such as for sensors, microsystems, optics and photonics. The early development of wafer bonding is reviewed and a retrospective view is taken on wafer bonding, addressing some of the critical research achievements and breakthroughs over the last three decades. The focus is limited to wafer bonding without the use of adhesive layers or electrostatic fields, and will hence not discuss related techniques, such as anodic bonding.
27.	Bessman, Alexander, et al. (author) Investigating the aging effect of current ripple on lithium-ion cells 2015 In: ECS Transactions. - : Electrochemical Society. - 1938-6737. - 9781607685395 ; , s. 101-106 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract We have built an experimental setup which exposes twelve cells to a well-defined ripple current. It consists of a system for cycling high capacity cells in parallel with a triangular current waveform superimposed on top of the direct current. The frequency of the waveform is variable up to 50 Hz, and the sum of the DC and AC components can have a magnitude of -40 A to 40 A. Current is measured over a 500 μω shunt resistor. The voltage and current of each cell is read simultaneously at a sample rate up to 4 MS/s, allowing for precise impedance measurements even for high frequency harmonics. The cells are cycled at 40 °C. The experiment has been designed to eliminate indirect effects of the AC harmonics as far as possible. This system is being used to test whether or not AC harmonics affect Li-ion aging.
28.	Bexell, Ulf, et al. (author) High temperature oxidation of plastically deformed ferritic interconnect steel 2011 In: ECS Transactions. - Pennington : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 35:1, s. 2463-2470 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract In this study, thin sheets of a 22% Cr ferritic steel, Sandvik Sanergy HT has been coated with a thin metallic cobalt film. Samples of the coated steel sheet were exposed to two different forming experiments simulating different aspects of sheet metal forming and post high temperature oxidation. The results show that the metallic cobalt film cracks when the steel sheet is subjected to biaxial straining but that the cracks heal at high temperature. Material subjected to modified scratch testing i.e. simulating the contact between sheet metal and forming tool will oxidize in the same manner as non-scratched material. Also, from high temperature corrosion point of view there is no difference between materials formed under lubricated or dry conditions when oxidized. However, from a tribological point of view a lubricated contact situation is preferred.
29.	Blennow, P., et al. (author) Investigation of Cu-based infiltration coatings for metal-supported SOFC 2013 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 57:1, s. 771-780 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Metal-supported solid oxide fuel cells are candidates for the next generation of SOFCs. However, the cell design with an FeCr/YSZ-based anode backbone suffers from corrosion when the cells are run at high fuel utilization, which limits the long term durability. In this work, new infiltration coatings based on Cu in combination with Ni:Ce0.8Gd0.2O 1.9 (Ni:CGO) have been studied. The candidates for a corrosion resistant coating should limit the formation of Cr2O3 on the surface of FeCr particles. Promising fuel cell performance with an ASR of 0.5 Ωcm2 was obtained at 650 °C with H2 as fuel. However, various analysis techniques showed no improved corrosion resistance with the addition of a Cu coating.
30.	Bu, Junfu, et al. (author) Preparation of Potential Protonic Conductor Yttria Doped Hafnia by Using the Modified Solid State Reaction Method 2014 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; , s. 315-320 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract A pure and well crystalized yttrium doped hafnium oxide Hf0.69Y0.31O2-δ (YSH) is obtained by using a modified solid state reaction method, where a water-based milling medium and freeze drying are implemented to reduce the agglomeration. The mean sizes of the YSH powder, which is obtained through a traditional alcohol-based milling method, is more than 1 um. However, the powder size can be reduced to 100 nm by using the water-based milling method. In addition, the calcination temperature can be lowered 200 °C to get a pure phase by using the water-based milling method, compared to the alcohol-based milling method. The relative density of YSH ceramic materials can reach to 97.5% by conventional sintering at 1650 °C after during 10 h.
31.	Dermenci, K.B., et al. (author) Effect of cathode slurry composition on the electrochemical properties of Li-ion batteries 2015 In: ECS Transactions. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 66:9, s. 285-293 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract The performance difference between commercial and laboratory scale cells remains a problem to be solved. Different way of battery electrode preparation is considered to be the main reason underlying various battery performance. In this work, the effect of slurry composition on electrochemical properties of Li-ion batteries is reported. Slurry preparation with various compositions of LiFePO4 active material (76-88%), PVdF binder (6-12%) and Super P Carbon conductive additive (6-12%) has been studied. Charge-discharge curves and capacity fade of electrodes are also investigated. Selected electrodes were pressed in order to see the effect of pressing on the final performance. Results showed that varying PVdF and carbon content mainly effects charge-discharge characteristics. For unpressed samples, higher amount of PVdF and carbon could result higher maximum specific capacity and lower internal resistance during lithiation and delithiation of positive electrode. Pressing reduces the distance between slurry particles, which enhances the conductivity of the prepared cell.
32.	Ducroquet, F., et al. (author) Admittance spectroscopy of Si/LaLuO3 and Si/GdSiO MOS Structures (Invited) 2012 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 45:3, s. 103 - 117 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Interface states at the gate oxide/channel of metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) transistors generally result in detrimental effects on the device performance which need to be considered for the new generations of high-k dielectrics. In this paper, the admittance of Gadolinium silicate (GdSiO) and Lanthanum Lutetium oxide (LaLuO3) MOS capacitors were investigated as a function of the signal frequency, temperature and gate voltage. The Arrhenius plots of the peak pulsations extracted from the conductance spectra have been discussed on the bases of simulated data taking into account a distribution of the trap energy levels and a thermally enhanced capture cross-section. The consequences of a peaked interface state distribution on the evolution of activation energies are shown to lead to Arrhenius plots following the Meyer-Neldel Rule.
33.	Engström, Olof, 1943 (author) Electron states in MOS systems (Invited) 2011 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781566778657 ; 35:4, s. 19 -38 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract The properties of charge carrier traps in the oxide bulk, at high-k/silicon transition regions, at the silicon interface and as dipoles are discussed from physical and electrical perspectives. In order to elucidate the charging properties of oxide traps, the statistical mechanics for occupation is derived based on a constant pressure ensemble and used to interpret the influence of negative-U states occurring in high-k oxides. For the transition region close to the silicon interface, the existence of unstable traps in the continuous shift of the energy bands between SiO2 and HfO2 is pointed out. The physical background for electrical measurements on interface states is examined and, finally, dipoles constituted by traps in high-k dielectrics for regulating threshold voltage of MOS transistors are considered.
34.	Engström, Olof, 1943, et al. (author) Multiparameter admittance spectroscopy (Invited) 2010 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781566778220 ; 35:3, s. 257-265 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Multiparameter admittance spectroscopy is described for investigating interface state properties of metal-oxide-semiconductor structures. In the conductance mode of this method, it allows for obtaining three-dimensional or contour plots of conductance data which reveal the mechanisms for capture of charge carriers into the interface states.
35.	Engström, Olof, 1943, et al. (author) Properties of Metal/High-k Oxide/Graphene Structures 2017 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 80:1, s. 157-176 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract The challenge of interpreting experimental data from capacitance versus voltage (C-V) measurements on metal/high-k oxide/graphene (MOG) structures is discussed. Theoretical expressions for the influence of interface states, bulk oxide traps, measurement frequency, temperature and puddles are derived and compared with experiments. The nature of oxide traps and their impact on C-V data is treated especially from the view of electron-lattice interaction at electron emission and capture and possible performance as border traps, resembling interface states. We find that characterization on detailed physical origins leading to effects on C-V data is a more complicated issue than the corresponding analysis of metal/oxide/semiconductor (MOS) structures.
36.	Esmaily, Mohsen, 1987, et al. (author) Achieving superior corrosion resistance in friction stir processed AA6005-T6 aluminum alloy joints 2015 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 64:26, s. 29-43 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract In this study, ultra-fine grained (UFG) structure was produced in the stir zone (SZ) of AA6005-T6 alloy joints using friction stir processing (FSP) cooled by liquid nitrogen (N 2 ). Conventional friction stir welding (FSW) was used to fabricate reference joints. The corrosion properties of the cooled joints were investigated by atmospheric corrosion tests. The corrosion exposures were carried out at a relative humidity (RH) of 95%, 400 ppm CO 2 and at 22°C. The rapidly cooled joints exhibited exceptional corrosion resistance in both corrosion experiments as well as better mechanical properties compared to those of the FSWed joints. The better corrosion resistance of the quenched sample was attributed to the microstructural modification of the joint.
37.	Espinoza Andaluz, Mayken, et al. (author) Analysis of Porosity and Tortuosity in a 2D Selected Region of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Cathode Using the Lattice Boltzmann Method 2015 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 65:1, s. 59-73 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract The solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is one of the most promising devices for getting electrical energy. There are a lot of advantages in the use of SOFCs such as their efficiency, higher electrical and thermal power production and reduction of the emission of polluting gases. Modeling the SOFC at downscale is one of the most important challenges in fuel cell (FC) research. Knowing the behavior of materials to this scale is a helpful tool to predict the physical and chemical phenomena within the FCs, improve their efficiency and reduce material costs. At micro- and mesoscale, Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) appears as a powerful tool for modeling fuel cells. LBM has been proven suitable for solving several physical phenomena in complex geometries such as porous media. Using the D2Q9 LBM scheme, the velocity field for a selected section of an SOFC cathode is determined. This velocity field is shown in 2D and 3D graphics. The porosity and tortuosity for this selected region are calculated and compared with previous results.
38.	Espinoza-Andaluz, M., et al. (author) Impact of carbon deposition on diffusion parameters in porous anodes of solid oxide fuel cells using the lattice Boltzmann method 2019 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. ; 91:1, s. 2023-2030 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is an electrochemical device that converts energy of a chemical reaction into electrical and thermal energy. Besides lack of pollutants and high electrical efficiency, one of the main advantages of SOFCs is the flexibility of using a wide range of fuels, i.e., natural gas, biogas, or any reactant with hydrogen as constituent. However, the use of hydrocarbon fuels can affect the transport phenomena within the SOFC porous anode due to carbon deposition. The purpose of this work is to investigate, at pore-scale level, the impact of carbon deposition on the microstructural parameters that describes the diffusion process. The single-phase fluid flow behavior through digitally generated SOFC anodes is obtained by the Lattice Boltzmann method (LBM). Diffusion transport parameters, i.e., porosity, gas-phase tortuosity and effective diffusion coefficient are computed for different content of carbon deposition to be able to evaluate its impact.
39.	ESPINOZA ANDALUZ, MAYKEN, et al. (author) Impact on Diffusion Parameters Computation in Gas Diffusion Layers, Considering the Land/Channel Region, Using the Lattice Boltzmann Method 2016 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-6737 .- 1938-5862. ; 75:14, s. 521-530 Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract Diffusion phenomena through the gas diffusion layer (GDL) at the microscale are one of the most complex physical phenomena to be described in proton exchange fuel cell (PEFC) numerical models. Predicting transport parameter behavior in GDLs is a valuable stage to propose micro-architectural designs, which can improve the efficiency and performance of fuel cells (FCs). The purpose of this paper is to propose an expression to estimate parameters involved in the diffusion process such as gas-phase tortuosity and effective diffusion coefficient when the effects of the land/channel region are considered. Three-dimensional GDL approximations are generated considering real characteristics of micro-porous layers employed in FCs. The fluid behavior through the porous media is simulated using the Lattice Boltzmann method (LBM), and the mentioned parameters are studied. The incidence of the land/channel presence over the gas-phase tortuosity is determined, and its effects over the effective diffusion are estimated.
40.	Eziashi, J., et al. (author) Measuring Cr volatility from ferritic stainless steels: Novel and conventional methods compared 2013 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 50:44, s. 43-49 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Reactive evaporation of Cr-species from ferritic stainless steels is a technical challenge for solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) systems and other devices operating in high-temperature (>600°C) oxidizing environments. One traditional method for quantitatively measuring Cr volatility is by using a transpiration system, in which oxidizing gases are flown by Cr-containing materials and the exhaust is condensed and subsequently analyzed using ICP-MS. While this method is well established and accurate, it also has limited sensitivity and challenges associated with sample collection. Novel methods have recently been developed to more quickly and accurately quantify lower levels of Cr volatility. These include the denuder technique, which employs a water-soluble reactive collection and optical analysis; a cold quartz wool collection method with ICP-MS; and, a cold Si-wafer collection with ionbeam analysis. Each method has advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost, operation, sensitivity and accuracy. In this poster, Cr volatility measurement techniques will be presented and compared in the context of facilitating new and ongoing research efforts.
41.	Falk Windisch, Hannes, 1984, et al. (author) Influence of chromium evaporation and oxidation on interconnect steels at 650-850°C 2013 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 57:1, s. 2225-2233 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Chromium evaporation and oxide scale growth are two important degradation mechanisms in SOFCs when chromia-forming alloys are used as the interconnect material. In this paper the influence of temperature on both mechanisms were studied. Isothermal exposures were carried out for 24, 168 and 500h at 650, 750 and 850°C in an air-3%H2O atmosphere. In the second part uncoated and metallic nano-coated samples were exposed for 3000h. This study clearly points out the relevance of Cr-evaporation at reduced temperatures and the importance of high quality coatings not only to protect the cell from cathode poisoning but also to reduce the risk of Cr-depletion within the interconnect steel.
42.	Fan, Q., et al. (author) The effect of functionalized silver on rheological and electrical properties of conductive adhesives 2011 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607682356 ; 34:1, s. 811-816 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract This research used low molecular surface modifiers, and observed that chemisorptions took place through the formation of a bond between silver surface and an adsorbed molecule, which improved the dispersion of silver flakes in the organic resin. Several different functionalizers, such as thioglycolic acid, silane and di-acid, were used to functionalize the silver surface. Results of shear viscosity, bulk resistivity etc. showed that by using these low molecular organic functionalizers, isotropic conductive adhesives (ICAs) with lower shear viscosity and better electrical conductivity at high silver fillers content were obtained. The adipic acid had the greatest effect on the rheological and electrical property of ICAs, so its weight percentage in silver flakes was also optimized; ICAs displayed the maximum electrical conductivity when there was 0.5 wt% of silver flakes.
43.	Froitzheim, Jan, 1981, et al. (author) Cr evaporation of metallic interconnects: A novel method for quantification 2009 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781566777391 ; 25:2 PART 2, s. 1423-1428 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Chromium evaporation from metallic interconnects in SOFCs is commonly poisoning the cathode of SOFCs. To reduce chromium evaporation, rather thick coatings have been deposited using various coating techniques. In this study, a 22% Cr ferritic steel has been coated with thin films (
44.	Froitzheim, Jan, 1981, et al. (author) Multifunctional Nano-Coatings for SOFC Interconnects 2011 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. - 9781607682127 ; 35:1, s. 2503-2508 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Chromium evaporation from metallic interconnects in SOFCs is commonly poisoning the cathode of SOFCs. To reduce chromium evaporation, rather thick coatings have been deposited using various coating techniques. In this study a 22% Cr ferritic steel has been coated with multilayered nano coatings. The best coatings combine a Cr retention layer (800nm Co) with a 10nm layer of Ce that reduces the corrosion rate of the metallic interconnect. Such coatings might be a cost efficient way to meet the required lifetime targets for SOFC interconnects. The Cr evaporation measurements are carried out with a recently developed denuder technique which allows time resolved quantification of volatile chromium species. Downstream of the samples a denuder tube is placed which collects any CrO2(OH)(2) evaporating from the samples.
45.	Froitzheim, Jan, 1981, et al. (author) Nano coated interconnects for SOFC (NaCoSOFC) 2013 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 57:1, s. 2187-2193 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract The NaCoSOFC project is focused on the development of nano coatings for SOFC interconnects. The project is sponsored by the Nordic Top Level Research Initiative and has four project partners: Sandvik Materials Technology which is producing coated interconnects, Chalmers University of Technology and the University of Oslo that characterize samples with respect to e.g. corrosion, Cr evaporation and ASR as well as Topsoe Fuel Cell that is testing the developed interconnects in its stacks. The developed coatings are based on a combination of Co with RE elements and exhibit high corrosion resistance, 10 fold decrease in Cr evaporation and ASR values that are approximately 50% of the uncoated material.
46.	Gagliani, Luca, 1991, et al. (author) The Influence of Humidity Content on Ferritic Stainless Steels Used in Solid Oxide Fuel Cell under Dual Atmosphere Conditions at 600 C 2021 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 103:1, s. 1809-1815 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract In Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC), interconnects are simultaneously exposed to dual atmosphere conditions in a range of temperature between 600 and 900 C. The presence of dissolved hydrogen in the steel can cause accelerated corrosion on the side exposed to air compared to exposures in air only. Moreover, the interconnect is subject to different humidity levels on the fuel side depending on fuel utilization. It has been already observed that a protective layer of chromia (Cr2O3) at the fuel side can mitigate the dual effect at the airside acting as a barrier for hydrogen permeation into the material. In this work, AISI 441 and Crofer 22 APU samples were exposed to dual atmosphere at 600 C under controlled humidity levels at the fuel side (20% vs. dry). Analysis performed showed how the humidity content on the fuel side largely affects the breakaway corrosion of the samples at the airside.
47.	Ganesh, Viswanathan, et al. (author) Role Of Green Buildings in Sustainable Living: Implementation and Impacts 2022 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 107:1, s. 189-197 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract The rise in the number of carbon footprint has led to various new challenges and opportunities to reduce the rate of global warming and carbon footprint present in the atmosphere similarly the amount of global warming caused by the modern buildings and electrical devices which are required for the purpose of cooling and heating have played a key role in the higher concentration of temperature in the urban areas. On the other hand, the temperature levels in rural areas are comparatively lower than the urban areas due to large bare land available for the free movement of air and the effect of trees have reduced the temperature with the help of natural shades and oxygen production. Therefore, the concept of green building and Net zero building have been incorporated to enable the concept of nature into the buildings where the people can be more interconnected to the nature and get benefited to reduce the overall temperature and global warming effect in the coming future in accordance with the Sustainable development goal 7 under affordable and clean energy.
48.	Goebel, Claudia, 1988, et al. (author) Influence of pre-oxidation on dual atmosphere effect on AISI 441 interconnects for solid oxide fuel cell applications 2017 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 78:1, s. 1559-1563 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract In previous studies an extreme dual atmosphere effect on the airfacing side of AISI 441 at 600°C was observed. However indications showed that pre-oxidation of the material might have a beneficial effect on the corrosion resistance in dual atmosphere. To examine this further we pre-oxidized AISI 441 samples for 0 min, 11 min, 45 min, 180 min and 280 min and subsequently exposed these at 600 °C for 500 h under dual atmosphere conditions. Photographs of the air-facing sides were taken throughout exposure to monitor the corrosion behavior. SEM analysis was performed on all samples after exposure.
49.	Goebel, Claudia, 1988, et al. (author) Long term (4 years) performance of Co/Ce coated 441 for SOFC interconnect applications 2017 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 78:1, s. 1675-1679 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Co/Ce coated 441 samples were exposed at 800°C in laboratory air for up to 37 000 h and subsequently characterized using different techniques. Mass gain data of all samples were recorded throughout exposure. Cr-evaporation measurements were conducted and compared with unexposed Co/Ce coated AISI 441 as well as unexposed and uncoated AISI 441. Furthermore SEM analysis on BIB cross-sections was performed on 7 000 h, 23 000 h and 35 000 h exposed Co/Ce coated 441.
50.	Goebel, Claudia, 1988, et al. (author) The influence of different factors on the dual atmosphere effect observed for AISI 441 interconnects used in solid oxide fuel cells 2019 In: ECS Transactions. - : The Electrochemical Society. - 1938-5862 .- 1938-6737. ; 91:1, s. 2261-2266 Conference paper (peer-reviewed)abstract Interconnects used in solid oxide fuel cells are subjected to dual atmosphere corrosion at 600 °C. In this work we show that the dual atmosphere effect is dependent on the thickness of the steel sheet. For this AISI 441 with varying thicknesses was exposed to dual atmosphere at 600 °C for 336 h. Before and after exposure photographs were taken to analyze the progress of corrosion on the air-facing side of the steel samples. Additionally, scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray diffraction (SEM/EDX) analysis was conducted on all exposed samples. It was found that thinner samples showed increased breakaway oxidation than thicker samples.

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