| 1. |
- Agar, David, et al.
(författare)
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Surplus forest biomass - The cost of utilisation through optimised logistics and fuel upgrading in northern Sweden
- 2020
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Ingår i: Journal of Cleaner Production. - : Elsevier BV. - 0959-6526 .- 1879-1786. ; 275
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In order to achieve a net zero emission economy by 2045, Sweden’s inland biomass resources are under examination. Large amounts of forest biomass in the north of the country are not utilised. In this study, resource mapping of surplus forest biomass, (logging residues, tree stumps and mill by-products) is carried out according to ecological harvesting restrictions to determine the annual potential of this resource. Using a network of terminals, optimised supply chains are used to determine the cost of feedstock supply and upgrading of biomass to value-added torrefied pellets. The results indicate that the total biomass surplus is 5.75 Mt (dry mass), representing a forested procurement area half the size of Sweden (224 500 km2). The surplus represents two per cent of Sweden’s annual energy consumption and 60 % of its coal and coke use. Aggregation of the existing terminal network results in 274 to 1611 kt of biomass (dry mass) supplied to ten terminals. Supply and upgrading costs at the terminals reflect a trade-off between the size of procurement area and the scale of upgrading; a large plant capacity corresponds to a low upgrading cost but a large supply cost and vice versa. The lowest supply cost is 79 € t−1 (dry mass) of feedstock and the upgrading capacity ranges from 86 to 1310 kt (dry mass). Utilisation of the surplus would require an effective energy cost range of 27–37 € MWh−1 exclusive of delivery cost to the end user and operational profits – corresponding to a minimum torrefied pellet price of 131 € t−1. Though much higher than other solid fuels, the energy price is comparable to that of natural gas. The results of this study have importance for legislation supporting EU and Swedish energy policy objectives.
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| 2. |
- Agar, David, et al.
(författare)
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The CO2 cutting cost of biogas from humanure and livestock manure
- 2022
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Ingår i: Sustainable energy technologies and assessments. - : Elsevier BV. - 2213-1388 .- 2213-1396. ; 53
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The European Union is accelerating its rollout of sustainable energy production and promotion of a circular economy. Electricity from biogas has synergy with energy-policy and rural-development goals yet its economic value is often convoluted. This study assessed the economic potential of biogas electricity using a representative rural case and quantified the cost and level of state support required for viability. The cost of CO2-equivalent emission reductions was determined using the recast Renewable Energy Directive (RED II). The results showed that a feed-in tariff of 0.33 € kWh−1 for green electricity was required for economic feasibility. This yielded a CO2 cutting cost of 251 € t−1. The methane energy potential was 78 467 kWh a−1 from 31 498 kg (dry mass) of substrates, 80% livestock manure and humanure and 20% plant-based. Circular use of the digestate from anaerobic digestion, enabled a nitrogen recovery potential of 1 575 kg a−1. The conclusions reached are that the economic value of the avoided emissions, through the RED II framework, is significant but it does not substantially improve the cost-effectiveness of biogas as an emission-mitigation technology. For biogas plant capacities less than 500 kW, current EU feed-in tariffs do not support economic viability.
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| 3. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris
(författare)
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A GIS methodology for optimal location of a wood-fired power plant: Quantification of available woodfuel, supply chain costs and GHG emissions
- 2017
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Ingår i: Journal of Cleaner Production. - : Elsevier BV. - 0959-6526 .- 1879-1786. ; 157, s. 201-212
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The objective of this study was to establish a Geographical Information System (GIS) based methodology to analyze the viability and optimal location of a new hypothetical wood-fired power plant in a specific region. The available woodfuel of Eucalyptus globulus suitable for energy use was calculated based on a WISDOM database (Woodfuel Integrated Supply/Demand Overview Mapping) which takes into account physical and legal accessibility of the resource. Available woodfuel is defined as the material remaining on the ground (crown and bark) after harvesting Eucalyptus stems, discounting the volume required to meet the current energy demand.Various spatial analyses were performed using ArcGIS 10.2.1, particularly the Network Analyst tool, to identify the optimized location of the new power plant. Then, considering the most common biomass harvesting system in a specified region, the costs and GHG emissions of the supply chain for this demand point were calculated. Total costs were calculated using machine productivity data and minimized distance calculation and GHG emissions by the amount of CO(2)e emitted, based on the Life Cycle Analysis methodology using productivity and fuel consumption data. A sensitivity analysis was also carried out to test the influence of moisture content and transport distances on the total cost and the GHG emissions.The results show that bundling was the highest cost (63.67% of total costs), followed by trucking (26.80%) and forwarding (9.53%). The GHG emissions for the whole system were 9.17 Kg CO(2)e/MWh, with the trucking being the greatest contributor, and bundling the second. The energy balance ratio (energy required as a percentage of energy produced by the system) was slightly over 2%, demonstrating high efficiency.The methodology presented here will help policy makers to evaluate possible locations for any future wood-fired power plants in terms of the lowest economic costs of supplying woodfuel and its environmental impact. This study extends on the scope of prior research, providing a realistic and detailed methodology for planning and logistics decision making in relation to the dynamization and sustain ability of woodfuel for energy use. (C) 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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| 4. |
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| 5. |
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| 6. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris, et al.
(författare)
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Framgångsfaktorer för större skogsbränsleterminaler
- 2013
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Terminaler används inom skogsbränslehanteringen för att jämna ut säsongsvariationer i efterfrågan och för att fungera som säkerhet i ett system med många osäkra faktorer. De kan också ge möjlighet till effektivare sönderdelning och transport. De senaste åren har terminaler för skogsbränslehantering blivit en viktig del i verksamheten för många skogsföretag med flera nyetableringar som följd. Med allt fler stora kunder på marknaden efterfrågas kostnadseffektivare logistiklösningar för järnvägstransporter och terminalhantering. Det finns betydande skillnader i transportkostnad beroende på förädlingsgraden på det skogsbränsle som transporteras, vilket kan motivera hantering över terminal. Målet med studien är att beskriva förutsättningarna för en lyckad terminalsatsning utifrån de skogsägande företagen, de fristående logistikföretagen och energiföretagens perspektiv, samt att peka ut möjliga områden för nyetableringar. En litteraturstudie kring terminaler, etableringar och tredjepartslösningar genomfördes för att placera projektets frågeställningar i ett sammanhang. Kvalitativa intervjuer genomfördes sedan med representanter för aktörsgrupperna; logistikföretag, skogsföretag/skogsägarföreningar och energiföretag. Gruppen som består av både skogsföretag och skogsägarföreningar benämns fortsättningsvis endast som skogsföretag. De tre viktigaste faktorerna som lyftes fram i intervjuerna var läget, anslutningar till järnväg, större vägar o.s.v. att foga över och behålla kompetent terminalpersonal samt att erbjuda inmätningsmöjligheter av leveranser och förråd. De fristående terminalföretagen lyfter även kundorientering och flexibilitet högt. Skogsföretagen nämner ordningen på terminalen som en viktig faktor för att driften ska bli effektiv. Att själva lastningen och lossningen till tåg är beroende av ordningen på terminalen är känt sedan tidigare. Energiföretagen lyfter aspekten med sammanblandning och inlåsning av olika bränslekvaliteter på terminaler. Man påpekar att det är viktigt att hålla isär material med hög fukthalt från material med låg fukthalt av brandtekniska skäl. Den främsta fördel med egenägd terminal, som nämns av alla respondentgrupper, är de konkurrensfördelar som en egen terminal kan medföra. Med öppna terminaler, d.v.s. en terminal som välkomnar alla kunder och normalt drivs av en fristående aktör, är fördelarna ökad kostnadseffektivitet genom exempelvis samordningsvinster, returer och samlastning samt minskad riskexponering för varuägaren då företaget snabbt kan avsluta verksamheten vid ändrade förhållanden.
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| 7. |
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| 8. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris, et al.
(författare)
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HARVESTING POTENTIAL AND PROCUREMENT COSTS OF LOGGING RESIDUES IN SWEDEN
- 2009
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The aim of this study was (i) to provide an estimation of the potential amount of logging residues (branches, tops and stumps with attached root system) that will be produced in Sweden (thinning and regeneration fellings) during the next decade (2010-2019) and (ii) calculate the costs for harvesting the residue, comminute it and bring it to the end user. Depending on the level of ecological, technical and economical restrictions the potential amount of slash (branches, tops and stumps) in regeneration fellings varied from 3.2 to 7.4 Mt OD annually while the potential amount (Mt OD) of stumps varied from 4.2 to 11.7 annually. The corresponding annual figures in thinning for slash and stumps were 1.7 to 3.9 and 1.8 to 5.7 Mt OD annually, respectively. 80% of the potential amount of slash and stumps at level 3 of ecological, technical and economical restrictions in regeneration fellings would be available for 85 EUR/ODT and 110 EUR/ODT, respectively
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| 9. |
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| 10. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris, et al.
(författare)
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Is there enough primary forest fuel available to feed into the existing and planned CHP facilities? The case of Northern Sweden
- 2010
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Ingår i: Publications / FINBIO. - 1239-4874. ; , s. 77-83
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- A combined GIS and optimization method was used to calculate logging residue (slash and stumps) flows and expected costs at the heating or combined heat and power plants (CHP) in Northern Sweden for two logging residue supply chains. Regional primary forest energy availability was estimated considering ecological, technical and economical restrictions. Two supply chains were considered: One supply chain was based on truck transport of the fuel to the CHP plants and the other one was based on collecting the fuel to terminals adjacent to railway lines and transporting it by train to plants that are located in Central Sweden. The costs for each supply chain were calculated based on current costs for harvesting, forwarding, chipping/crushing, machine allocation to the harvesting site, road transport, compensation to the land owner and administration. The lowest cost pathway to the plants was selected. The effects of the establishment of the CHP plants on regional development are discussed
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| 11. |
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| 12. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris, et al.
(författare)
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Marginalkostnader för skörd av grot och stubbar från föryngringsavverkningar i Sverige
- 2009
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Kostnaden för att ta ut grot och stubbar från föryngringsavverkningar i Sverige har uppskattats och redovisas i form av marginalkostnadskurvor. Beräkningarna baseras på den mängd grot och stubbar som faller ut till följd av föryngringsavverkningar som utförs i referensscenariot i SKA-VB 08 för perioden 2010 - 2019. De potentialer som använts är efter avdrag för ekologiska, tekniska och ekonomiska restriktioner, dvs. nivå 3 i SKA-VB 08. Kostnaderna för uttag av grot och stubbar har beräknats för de maskinsystem som är vanligast förekommande i Sverige och Finland idag. Ersättning till markägare, administrationsomkostnader och kostnader för skörd, sönderdelning, maskinflyttningar och transport av grot och stubbar är de kostnadsposter som ingår i beräkningarna. Grot kan tas ut till en lägre kostnad än stubbar vilket leder till att marginalkostnadskurvan för grot startar på en lägre nivå än marginalkostnadskurvan för stubbar; 600 kr/ton TS för grot respektive 800 kr/ton TS för stubbar. Om kostnaden får öka från 770 till 920 kr/ton TS kan tillvaratagandet av grot öka från dagens ca 2 till 2,9 Mton TS, dvs. 90 % av den tillgängliga potentialen som är 3,2 Mton TS. Först vid en kostnad på 850 kr/ton TS trädbränsle uppgår andelen stubbar till 10 % av sortimentsfördelningen. Vid en kostnad på 1 100 kr/ton TS är sortimentsfördelningen så gott som lika för grot och stubbar. Om 2,5 Mton TS (60 %) av tillgänglig potential stubbar i nuläget ska bli aktuella för skörd blir uttagskostnaden upp till 1 000 kr/ton TS. Omräkningstalet 1 ton TS = 4,9 MWh har använts vid omvandling mellan massa och energi. Detta värde anger mängden energi som kan avges som värme vid förbränning av skogsbränsle med en fukthalt på 40 % när vattnets ångbildningsenergi inte utnyttjas. Om prestationen för de maskiner som ingår i stubbsystemet ökar med 15 % så kan man få ut samma mängd vid 920 kr/ton TS. Kostnadsfördelningen visar att transportkostnaderna är den viktigaste kostnadsposten, speciellt när det gäller små avverkningstrakter, belägna långt från tätort
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| 13. |
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| 14. |
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| 15. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris
(författare)
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Plan for promoting the demonstrated systems and technologies for further development - D6.4
- 2014
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- demonstrated systems and technologies for further deployment. The goal of this task was divided into four specific objectives: 1. To assess the role of the demonstrated new or improved machinery for the sustainable and reliable supply of forest biomass to the facilities, with special focus on cost reduction and/or additional biomass supply that can be achieved by the demonstrated innovative technology; 2. To make proposals to promote the innovation and subsequent technology transfer and to present suggestions on how the inventions that have been developed in this project can overcome the obstacles encountered and reach commercialization; 3. To develop scenarios for the potential markets of lignocellulosic forestry residues for biorefineries and energy use; 4. To perform a risk assessment to estimate the side‐effects of not putting interesting inventions into practice. In the first part, there is a summary of the assessment of the machinery demonstrated in the framework of the INFRES project. Some of the main advantages of the innovations are the cost reduction in comparison with conventional systems, in addition to improved productivity and increased supply. Besides this, a couple of innovations showed fuel savings compared to previous supply chains. Moreover, other improvements have been observed, but without a quantitative assessment. Finally, as a conclusion, certain innovations are successful only when they are used in the conditions they were designed for. In the second part, a plan for overcoming the previously identified barriers was elaborated, and the plan was then submitted for assessment by several experts. The application of the most important measures to overcome the barriers that manufacturers face when developing an innovation is mainly in the hands of the manufacturers themselves, and partly in the hands of policy makers who may contribute through the development of appropriate financing instruments or compensations for high‐risk investments in SME’s. In the case of measures proposed to overcome the barriers that manufacturers face during the implementation or use phase, the application of the measures is in the hands of a balanced mix of the main stakeholders, including forest companies and manufacturers. It means that both have to work, sometimes together, to overcome the detected barriers. In the third part, any of the future scenarios anticipates an increase in woody biomass demand. The growth of the biorefinery sector will change the landscape of the forest biomass requirements by 2030. Indeed, feedstocks such as forest residues and stumps can be easily used by this sector. Besides this, the increase and improvement of the machinery used in the forest biomass supply chains, together with the optimization of the whole chains, take some time. As a consequence, it is a challenge for Europe to reach high enough competitiveness and innovation levels so as to cover the demand needs in the best way, with its own resources, seeking a positive impact on all EU regions and on European machinery manufacturers. Finally, the fourth part concludes that if technological and logistical innovations are not implemented in forest biomass supply chains, then energy and environmental targets in the EU will not be reached. Sustainability and cost efficiency gains in the biomass supply chains will not be achieved either. The introduction of innovative solutions as those presented by INFRES will be made possible by implementing the measures that were identified in the third part for overcoming the barriers in the development, implementation and use phases of the innovations.
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| 16. |
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| 17. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris
(författare)
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Present value flows in Swedish forest-based industry
- 2015
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Ingår i: VTT Technology. - 2242-1211. ; 233, s. 351-357
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Forest biomass represents large physical as well as economic flows through the forest industry value chains. This paper presents the results from a survey of eco-nomic values related to the forest biomass flows from the forest through the forest-based economy in Sweden. The study is based on published market and industry data as well as information from stakeholders in the forest industry value chains. The flows are illustrated graphically.
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| 18. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris, et al.
(författare)
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Procurement costs of slash and stumps in Sweden – a comparison between South and North Sweden
- 2010
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Marginal cost curves were used to appreciate the amount of slash and stumps that could be harvested at certain costs in Sweden as a whole as well as in two regions (Upper Norrland and South Sweden). The expected region specific variations were quantified and region specific estimates on harvestable potentials of stumps and slash were made. The results in this work were based on data collected in the Swedish Forest Inventory (SFI) from 2002 to 2006
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| 19. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris, et al.
(författare)
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Regional GIS-based evaluation of the potential and supply costs of forest biomass in Sweden
- 2017
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Ingår i: Frontiers of Agricultural Science and Engineering. - 2095-7505 .- 2095-977X. ; 4, s. 493-501
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The potential for harvestable forest fuel (logging residues and stumps from regeneration fellings and small diameter trees from early thinnings) in Sweden, divided in five regions, is provided. Marginal cost curves for logging residues and stumps are calculated through a GIS-based method based on forest inventory plots and locations of selected terminals, and heat and combined heat and power facilities. Four supply chains for logging residues and two for stumpwood were compared. Fixed and variable costs of harvesting equipment and transport vehicles were used for determining the costs of each of the supply systems under consideration. A list with the GPS coordinates of all facilities and terminals was made based on their geographical location. The distance from the center of each forest inventory plot to the nearest receiving point within the region, either facility or terminal, was estimated. There were large differences in the estimated potential of harvestable forest fuel between the regions. The overall annual potential for each of the five regions ranged from 0.97 to 2.73 million oven dry tonnes and the total potential amounted to 9.39 Mt (oven dry). One of the northernmost regions (R1) had the steepest slope in its marginal cost curve. For the other regions, the slope of their cost curves was less dramatic. Information on the economic availability of logging residues and stumps in each region is important for forest fuel suppliers and receiving facilities.
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| 20. |
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| 21. |
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| 22. |
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| 23. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris
(författare)
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Sub-national TIMES model for analyzing future regional use of biomass and biofuels in Sweden and France
- 2013
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Ingår i: Renewable Energy. - : Elsevier BV. - 0960-1481. ; 60, s. 415-426
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The objective of this study is to improve evaluations of the future use of biomass sources in Sweden and France by representing the high spatial variations of the supply and cost of biomass sources in energy system models, The proposed methodology considers a high spatial disaggregation of biomass supply sources, as well as detailed biomass cost supply curves, and is thereby able to account for spatial differences in heterogeneous land qualities, management strategies, and possible adaptation rates. Integrating the methodology into national or regional energy system models will enhance cost-effective evaluations of biomass sources as well as the development of the bioenergy sector. A TIMES energy system model was used to evaluate bioenergy production potential for France and Sweden based on domestic biomass sources and under the assumption that bioenergy production should not be at the expense of domestic food and forestry supply. Results show that by 2050, the biomass sources considered could provide as much as 250 PJ of bioenergy in Sweden, and 1470 PJ of bioenergy in France. Results further showed that 1st generation biofuels are likely to continue to play a substantial role in the biofuel mix. While 2nd generation biofuel production in Sweden is likely to be low, larger amounts of 2nd generation biofuels could be produced in France. However, the amount and type of 2nd generation biofuel produced in France was found to be highly dependent on the bioenergy demand level. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 24. |
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| 25. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris
(författare)
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Sustainability Impact Assessment of Forest Operations: a Review
- 2019
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Ingår i: Current Forestry Reports. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 2198-6436. ; 5, s. 101-113
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- Purpose of Review One of the challenges of forest operations is to consider the consequences of different management strategies and to estimate the economic, environmental and social performance of different processes, products, or services. From the methods available to quantify the impact of alternative forest management, we selected the method of Sustainability Impact Assessment (SIA), an iterative process that includes the analysis of the societal, environmental, and economic sustainability pillars and offers a wider assessment framework, which is useful for stakeholders and policy makers. The purpose of this review is to identify the state of the art and trends of SIA in forest operations. Recent Findings There are few studies including all pillars of sustainability and most of the studies consider different aspects of environmental or economic impacts. It is important to determine the system boundaries and select the appropriate indicators in order to have a comprehensive SIA. Different harvesting technologies and their deployment can influence costs, productivity, environment, and safety risk. Some indicators, such as cost and productivity, can vary between countries and different scenarios. Efficient machines, appropriate technical systems, innovative products, and up-to date training of operators can have a positive impact on sustainability. Economic factors can change at a rapid pace, and new machines can play a positive role in forest operations (e.g., lower fuel consumption, higher level of safety and comfort for operators). The inclusion of indicators measuring the extra value of the forest should be considered. We suggest adopting sensitivity analysis during the assessment of key processes to observe the effect on the hot spots.
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| 26. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris
(författare)
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Sustainability impacts of increased forest biomass feedstock supply - a comparative assessment of technological solutions
- 2018
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Ingår i: International Journal of Forest Engineering. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1494-2119 .- 1913-2220. ; 29, s. 99-116
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Sustainably managed forests provide renewable raw material that can be used for primary/secondary conversion products and as biomass for energy generation. The potentially available amounts of timber, which are still lower than annual increments, have been published earlier. Access to this timber can be challenging for small-dimensioned assortments; however, technologically improved value chains can make them accessible while fulfilling economic and environment criteria. This paper evaluates the economic, environmental and social sustainability impacts of making the potentially available timber available with current and technologically improved value chains. This paper focuses on increasing the biomass feedstock supply for energy generation. Quantified impact assessments show which improvements - in terms of costs, employment, fuel and energy use, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions - can be expected if better mechanized machines are provided. Using three different methods - Sustainability Impacts Assessment (SIA), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), and Emission Saving Criteria (ESC) - we calculated current and innovative machine solutions in terms of fuel use, energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions, to quantify the impact of the technology choice and also the effect of the choice of assessment method. Absolute stand-alone values can be misleading in analyses, and the use of different impact calculation approaches in parallel is clarifying the limits of using LCA-based approaches. The ESC has been discussed for the recast of the Renewable Energy Directive. Potential EU-wide results are presented.
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| 27. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris, et al.
(författare)
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Technological and economic barriers to introduce and apply innovations in forest energy sector
- 2014
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This report presents results from three studies done within the Work Package 6 (Technology foresight and barriers of innovation) of the EU FP7 project INFRES. The aims of the studies were to 1) identify and rank the criteria that forest machine manufacturing companies are using to measure the success/failure of an innovation, 2) identify barriers that forest machine manufacturing companies are facing and find out how these barriers are tackled and 3) identify and discuss innovations that have been successful in the forest energy sector and innovations that were not successful and the reasons for that. In the first study, different forest technology manufacturers were asked to rank a number of criteria that determine the success of an innovation. The second study also included forest technology manufacturers answering a questionnaire about barriers and drivers for innovation. In the third study forest technology experts from all of Europe were asked to comment on 10 important innovations and also suggest if these innovations were a success or a failure in their regions. The results from study 1 revealed that manufacturers point out criteria that are related to customer relations, i.e. customer satisfaction, product performance level and meeting quality guidelines as the most important. Company benefit measures (e.g. growth of demand of the products of the company) also seemed to be prioritized. However, the answers differed among companies and more studies will be needed in order to see if company size, number of products on the market and other factors may affect the answers here. In study 2, the most important barriers were lack of financing, especially for new high‐risk projects. This is further supported by the fact that the forest technology sector is a small market and that development costs are high. Lack of skilled engineers was occasionally seen as a barrier as well. The answers regarding solutions to barriers suggest that the most important solution seem to be collaborations with customers, both to get a feel for what customers want, but also to better introduce new technology in a sometimes conservative market. Furthermore, collaborations with universities and research institutes will become more important as those will help unlock additional funding for development of innovations. However, drivers for innovations were often tied to competitiveness (to stay on top, offer the best products, being one step ahead of competitors), but there was also a few who felt rather passionate about innovation in general, so a genuine interest in product development seem to be an important driver as well. In study 3, some past innovations were evaluated and several issues were raised as key factors in the success: productivity, investment, flexibility, maintenance, suitable environment, competition, marketing or conservatism. Innovations that increased productivity of the operations, reduced the cost and were flexible (can work in most conditions) were identified as successful. On the other hand innovations that are poorly marketed, require complicated logistics, can only be used in specific conditions and have a low productivity were considered as a failure.
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| 28. |
- Athanassiadis, Dimitris
(författare)
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Threefold sustainability impact assessment method comparison for renewable energy value chains
- 2017
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Ingår i: International Journal of Forest Engineering. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1494-2119 .- 1913-2220. ; 28, s. 116-122
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- There is a variety of different methods for carrying out sustainability impact assessments of energy value chains. The different methods can use the same, or similarly named, indicators, but the methods make different assumptions about the system boundaries and differ in the purpose of the assessment, and this can lead to confusion when communicating the results of different studies. A method expansion of Sustainability Impact Assessment (SIA) was developed and tested to allow comparison of environmental indicators of energy use and generation, energy balance and greenhouse gas emission as calculated according to three different methods. (1) direct value chain environmental impacts; (referred to as SIA in this paper), (2) direct plus indirect impacts following a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach, and (3) a method based on European Sustainability Criteria (ESC) for solid biomass. The Tool for Sustainability Impact Assessment (ToSIA 2.0) was used for this method expansion. Indicator values following the three different approaches were calculated for a typical Nordic bioenergy harvesting chain producing forest wood chips. The indicator values for SIA, LCA and ESC are made comparable side by side, and give thus more insight on the difference and purpose of the three different methods when applied to the same harvesting chain.
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| 29. |
- Berg, Simon, et al.
(författare)
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Opportunity cost of several methods for determining forest biomass terminal locations in Northern Sweden
- 2020
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Ingår i: International Journal of Forest Engineering. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1494-2119 .- 1913-2220. ; 31, s. 37-50
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Long distance transportation of forest biomass is often unavoidable because the biomass is dispersed over large land areas. This is a problem that limits the development of biorefineries all over the world. The use of biomass terminals where forest biomass is transported to, stored, processed (mostly by mobile machinery), and reloaded can facilitate more environmentally friendly and efficient transportation to a biorefinery. The challenge is to identify the locations that should be selected for terminal establishment in order to minimize the cost of biomass procurement. In this study, locations for terminal establishment are proposed based on an optimization method (Combopt) that simultaneously minimizes the harvesting, transportation, and terminal costs for round wood and logging residues. The outcome of this method was compared with several other methods imitating situations with limited knowledge to estimate potential opportunity costs of potential knowledge deficiency when selecting terminal locations. The results of the Combopt method suggest that six terminals are required in order to minimize the overall cost of satisfying the estimated demand from the biorefineries. The opportunity cost of alternative terminal selection methods ranged from 3.1 to 35.4 million SEK (0.5-6.1% of total procurement cost). Methods that considered biomass relatively close to terminals had lower opportunity costs, together with methods minimizing transportation and terminal cost for the most common wood assortment. The methods and results could be applicable in other parts of the world were similar problems exists in forestry and other industries.
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| 30. |
- Berg, Simon, et al.
(författare)
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The cost of closed terminals in the supply chain for a potential biorefinery in northern Sweden
- 2020
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Ingår i: Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. - : Informa UK Limited. - 0282-7581 .- 1651-1891. ; 35, s. 165-176
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Establishment of biorefineries for processing forest biomass in the Nordic region is extremely costly due to the high investment, running, and procurement costs. Procurement costs could be reduced by allowing all actors to open access to all available terminals in an area (regardless of ownership) and allowing trucks with higher gross weight. These impacts of changes were evaluated for deliveries of logging residue and energy wood chips to a potential biorefinery, from two suppliers in northern Sweden. Open access to all terminals reduced the terminal-procurement costs by 2-6% and the terminal-to-biorefinery transportation costs by 7-9%. When 74 tonnes trucks were used instead of 60 tonnes, the terminal-to-biorefinery transportation costs were reduced by 4 and 3%, in the current situation and with open access to terminals, respectively. However, the largest effect of open access was that the fraction of short-distance transportation to terminals and train transportation from terminals increased significantly. This indicated that open access to terminals and relatively heavy trucks between terminals and the biorefinery are preferable from both environmental and economic perspectives. Furthermore, the estimated cost saving was adequate and should allow the deliverers to pay a reasonable fee for the use of terminal space.
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| 31. |
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| 32. |
- Berg, Simon, et al.
(författare)
-
Torque required to twist and cut loose Scots pine stumps
- 2012
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Ingår i: Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. - : Informa UK Limited. - 0282-7581 .- 1651-1891. ; 27, s. 724-733
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Stump wood is a possible source of renewable energy, but before its potential as a fuel can be utilised to a high degree, new harvesting techniques should be developed to reduce the environmental impact (notably ground disturbance) of harvesting stumps. The forces required to lift and drag stumps out of the soil are known. In this study, two unknown and important parameters were addressed: the torque required to uproot stumps by twisting them and the torque required to cut lateral roots around stumps. A new, improved stump-twisting rig was designed and used in trials with 28 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) trees (breast-height diameter over bark, 153-427 mm). The measured torque requirements ranged from 10 to 50 kNm. Twisting stumps required more torque than cutting lateral roots around stumps and the required torque increased with increases in stump size. The results indicate that a wrist on a big feller-buncher, but not a conventional rotator used on forest machines, should be able to generate sufficient torque to cut the roots around stumps such as those used in this study.
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| 33. |
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| 34. |
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| 35. |
- Blagojevic, Bosko, et al.
(författare)
-
Determining the relative importance of factors affecting the success of innovations in forest technology using AHP
- 2020
-
Ingår i: Journal of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis. - : Wiley. - 1057-9214 .- 1099-1360. ; 27
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A number of factors affect the success, or otherwise, of any technological innovation. In this paper, we consider factors that affect the success of innovations in the context of forest machinery manufacturing (FMM). We report the results of a study that seeks to determine the relative importance of 19 different factors affecting the success of innovations in the FMM sector. The first stage of the study makes use of the analytic hierarchy process to determine the relative importance (weights) of these factors, based on the responses of 15 decision makers (DMs) employed by different FMM companies. The study then considers three different ways of weighting the responses of DMs, based on different assumptions about how the responses of outliers-those DMs whose views differ significantly from the majority-should be handled. The first method assumes that the responses of all DMs are of equal value. The second assumes that the influence of outliers' responses should be reduced and makes use of a Euclidean distance metric to determine the weight that should be ascribed to each DM's responses. The third assumes that the influence of outliers' responses should be increased and makes use of hierarchical clustering techniques. Although the weight assignment methods were based on very different assumptions about how to treat the views of outliers, they produced similar rankings of factors. Results showed that for FMM companies, customer satisfaction, proportion of total sales by new products, influence on the overall profit of the company, and growth of demand for the company products were the most important factors for measuring the success of innovations.
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| 36. |
- Börjesson, Martin, 1980, et al.
(författare)
-
Bioenergy futures in Sweden - system effects of CO2 reduction and fossil fuel phase-out policies
- 2015
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Ingår i: GCB Bioenergy. - : Wiley. - 1757-1707 .- 1757-1693. ; 7:5, s. 1118-1135
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Bioenergy could contribute both to the reduction of greenhouse gases and to increased energy security, but the extent of this contribution strongly depends on the cost and potential of biomass resources. For Sweden, this study investigates how the implementation of policies for CO2 reduction and for phase out of fossil fuels in road transport affect the future utilization of biomass, in the stationary energy system and in the transport sector, and its price. The analysis is based on the bottom-up, optimization MARKAL_Sweden model, which includes a comprehensive representation of the national energy system. For the analysis, the biomass supply representation of MARKAL_Sweden is updated and improved by the use of, e.g., forestry forecasting modeling and through construction of detailed biomass supply curves. A time horizon up to 2050 is applied. The results indicate a potential for significantly higher use of bioenergy. In the main analysis scenario, in which CO2 reduction of 80% by 2050 is imposed on the Swedish energy system, the total bioenergy utilization increases by 63% by 2050 compared to 2010. The largest increase occurs in the transport sector, which by 2050 accounts for 43% of the total primary bioenergy use. The high demand and strong competition significantly increase biomass prices and lead to the utilization of higher cost biomass sources such as stumps and cultivated energy forest, as well as use of pulpwood resources for energy purposes.
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| 37. |
- Börjesson, Martin, 1980, et al.
(författare)
-
Biofuel futures in road transport - A modeling analysis for Sweden
- 2014
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Ingår i: Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. - : Elsevier BV. - 1361-9209 .- 1879-2340. ; 32, s. 239-252
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- First and second generation biofuels are among few low-carbon alternatives for road transport that currently are commercially available or in an early commercialization phase. They are thus potential options for meeting climate targets in the medium term. For the case of Sweden, we investigate cost-efficient use of biofuels in road transport under system-wide CO2 reduction targets to 2050, and the effects of implementation of targets for an almost fossil-free road transport sector to 2030. We apply the bottom-up, optimization MARKAL_Sweden model, which covers the entire Swedish energy system including the transport sector. For CO2 reductions of 80% to 2050 in the Swedish energy system as a whole, the results of the main scenario show an annual growth rate for road transport biofuels of about 6% from 2010 to 2050, with biofuels accounting for 78% of road transport final energy use in 2050. The preferred biofuel choices are methanol and biomethane. When introducing additional fossil fuel phase-out policies in road transport (-80% to 2030), a doubling of the growth rate to 2030 is required and system CO2 abatement costs increases by 6% for the main scenario. Results imply that second generation biofuels, along with energy-efficient vehicle technologies such as plug-in hybrids, can be an important part of optimized system solutions meeting stringent medium-term climate targets.
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| 38. |
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| 39. |
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| 40. |
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| 41. |
- Carvalho, Ricardo L., et al.
(författare)
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Bioenergy strategies to address deforestation and household air pollution in western Kenya
- 2019
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Ingår i: European Biomass Conference and Exhibition Proceedings. - : ETA-Florence Renewable Energies. ; , s. 1536-1542
-
Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Over 640 million people in Africa are expected to rely on solid-fuels for cooking by 2040. In Western Kenya, cooking inefficiently persists as a major cause of burden disease due to household air pollution. The Long-Range Energy Alternatives Planning (LEAP) system and the Life-Cycle Assessment tool Simapro 8.5 were applied for analyzing biomass strategies for the region. The calculation of the residential energy consumption and emissions was based on scientific reviews and original data from experimental studies. The research shows the effect of four biomass strategies on the reduction of wood fuel use and short-lived climate pollutant emissions. A Business As Usual scenario (BAU) considered the trends in energy use until 2035. Transition scenarios to Improved Cookstoves (ICS), Pellet-fired Gasifier Stoves (PGS) and Biogas Stoves (BGS) considered the transition to wood-logs, biomass pellets and biogas, respectively. An Integrated (INT) scenario evaluated a mix of the ICS, PGS and BGS. The study shows that, energy use will increase by 8% (BGS), 20% (INT), 26% (PGS), 42% (ICS) and 56% (BAU). The BGS has the lowest impact on global warming, particle formation, terrestrial acidification, fossil resource scarcity, water consumption, as well as on eutrophication followed by the PGS and INT.
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| 42. |
- Carvalho, Ricardo Luís, et al.
(författare)
-
Environmental Sustainability of Bioenergy Strategies in Western Kenya to Address Household Air Pollution
- 2020
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Ingår i: Energies. - : MDPI. - 1996-1073. ; 13:3
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Over 640 million people in Africa are expected to rely on solid-fuels for cooking by 2040. In Western Kenya, cooking inefficiently persists as a major cause of burden of disease due to household air pollution. Efficient biomass cooking is a local-based renewable energy solution to address this issue. The Life-Cycle Assessment tool Simapro 8.5 is applied for analyzing the environmental impact of four biomass cooking strategies for the Kisumu County, with analysis based on a previous energy modelling study, and literature and background data from the Ecoinvent and Agrifootprint databases applied to the region. A Business-As-Usual scenario (BAU) considers the trends in energy use until 2035. Transition scenarios to Improved Cookstoves (ICS), Pellet-fired Gasifier Stoves (PGS) and Biogas Stoves (BGS) consider the transition to wood-logs, biomass pellets and biogas, respectively. An Integrated (INT) scenario evaluates a mix of the ICS, PGS and BGS. In the BGS, the available biomass waste is sufficient to be upcycled and fulfill cooking demands by 2035. This scenario has the lowest impact on all impact categories analyzed followed by the PGS and INT. Further work should address a detailed socio-economic analysis of the analyzed scenarios.
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| 43. |
- De La Fuente, Teresa, et al.
(författare)
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Cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of forest supply chains: Comparison of Canadian and Swedish case studies
- 2017
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Ingår i: Journal of Cleaner Production. - : Elsevier BV. - 0959-6526 .- 1879-1786. ; 143, s. 866-881
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This study took a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) perspective to model a total of twenty forest supply chains, from seedling production to forest biomass delivery to industry. Four scenarios were analyzed, two in Sweden and two in Canada. Resource and energy consumption, and emissions to air, water and soil of conventional and biomass dedicated supply chains were evaluated and compared.The Swedish supply chains showed a better environmental profile, on average, per oven dry tonne (0Dt) than the Canadian ones in the regions studied. In terms of climate change potential the Swedish biomass dedicated supply chains generated 48.8 kg CO2-eq, 13%, 30% and 38% lower than Swedish conventional, Canadian biomass dedicated and Canadian conventional supply chains, respectively. Sawlogs from final felling in the Swedish biomass dedicated supply chains generated 34.2 kg CO2-eq, the lowest emissions within the roundwood assortments. Concerning the forest fuel assortments in form of wood chips, pulpwood from final felling in the Swedish conventional supply chains, and stump core and long tops from final felling in the Swedish biomass dedicated supply chains generated the lowest emissions: 48.9 kg CO2-eq, 52.3 Kg CO2-eq and 57.8 kg CO2-eq respectively. Transport from forest to industry, harvesting, extraction, chipping, and crushing were identified as hotspots in the forest supply chains. Forwarding versus skidding, chipping and transportation were the processes that differed the most between countries.In both countries, when the supply chains were biomass dedicated the environmental impacts per ODt were lower than in the conventional supply chains. Therefore, integrating forest fuel supply with industrial wood harvesting has the potential to reduce emissions. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 44. |
- De La Fuente, Teresa, et al.
(författare)
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Fuel consumption and GHG emissions of forest biomass supply chains in Northern Sweden: a comparison analysis between integrated and conventional supply chains
- 2017
-
Ingår i: Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. - : Informa UK Limited. - 0282-7581 .- 1651-1891. ; 32, s. 568-581
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Forest biomass can be used as source of renewable energy, contributing to mitigate climate change. Currently, forest biomass is one of the most important energy sources in Sweden, accounting for around 20% of the total supply. New demands of forest biomass may be expected due to the European Union energy targets, the previous high oil prices, the energy supply security, and the bioenergy market. However, the supply depends on the intensity of conventional final felling operations. Thus, it is crucial to determine the energy demands of conventional and new forest assortment supply chains and promote those with the highest energy efficiency and least greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. An attributional life cycle assessment approach was used to evaluate the fuel consumption and GHG emissions associated with the combustion of fossil fuels used in forest operations, transportation and comminution of forest biomass procured via two kinds of supply chains in Northern Sweden: conventional and integrated. The results indicate that most fuel was consumed in transportation processes. The integrated supply chains (in which the harvesting of industrial roundwood is integrated with extraction of forest fuels) are more energy efficient than conventional supply chains, and have the potential to reduce GHG emissions by approximately 13%.Abbreviation: BWT: bundled whole small trees; CTL: Cut-to-length; ET: energy thinning; FF: final felling; FT: first thinning; FU: functional unit; GHG: greenhouse gas; GWP: global warming potential; LCA: life cycle assessment; LR: logging residues; LT: long tops; ODt: oven dry tonne; ORN: ornskoldsvik (industrial location); PCT: pre-commercial thinning; PL: pulpwood; PM(15)h: Productive machine hours including delays shorter than 15min; RS: Rough-delimbed tree sections; SC: stump core; SL: sawlogs; SP: stumps; ST: second thinning; STO: Storuman (industrial location); u.b: under bark; UME: Umea (industrial location)
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| 45. |
- Di Fulvio, Fulvio, et al.
(författare)
-
Integrated supply of stemwood and residual biomass to forest-based biorefineries
- 2016
-
Ingår i: International Journal of Forest Engineering. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1494-2119 .- 1913-2220. ; 27, s. 115-138
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The demand for forest biomass as raw material for a wide range of products in the developing bioeconomy is expected to increase. Along with a constant pressure on forestry to increase its productivity, this development has led to the search for new procurement methods and new assortments. The present study assessed innovative supply chain practices, with a particular focus on the integrated supply of stemwood and residual tree parts. The assortments considered included tree sections, long tops, saw logs with stump cores and small whole trees from thinnings. The assessment included geographically explicit modelling of the supply chain operations and estimation of supply cost and energy use for three industrial locations in Northern Sweden. The innovative supply chains were compared to conventional, separate, harvest of stemwood and logging residues. We conclude that integrated harvest of tops and branches with stemwood assortments, as well as whole-tree harvest in early thinnings, has a significant potential to reduce the supply cost for the non-stemwood assortments. Stump wood generally remains the most expensive assortment. The energy use analysis confirms earlier research showing that the energy input is relatively small compared to the energy content of the harvested feedstock.
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| 46. |
- Eriksson, Gunnar, et al.
(författare)
-
Production costs and markets for pellet chips: case studies in northern Sweden
- 2012
-
Ingår i: International Journal of Forestry Research. - : Hindawi Limited. - 1687-9368 .- 1687-9376. ; 2012
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Increasing use of woody fuels requires that nontraditional types of raw materials are exploited, including logging residues and small-diameter trees. Although medium-scale combustors often use pellets, they could conceivably use dried chips of sufficiently narrow size distribution (henceforth pellet chips). The influence of the following factors on the relative cost-effectiveness of producing pellets and pellet chips was investigated for three plant sites in northern Sweden: (1) harvesting and transporting of forest residues; (2) the potential of existing energy plants to supply drying heat in periods of capacity surplus; (3) the distance to potential end-users. Data from the national forest inventory were used to estimate raw material costs. The resulting production costs were 144–176 $ per oven-dry tonnes (OD t) for pellets (27.4–33.5 $ MWh−1) and 143–173 $ OD t−1 (27.2–33.0 $ MWh−1) for pellet chips, with harvesting, forwarding, chipping, and transporting of logging residues to the sites amounting to 114–122 $ OD t−1 (21.7–23.2 $ MWh−1) for both fuels. Even though the differences in production costs were minor, the production of pellet chips requires significantly less electricity input per OD t of produced fuel. For cost reductions improved methods for wood fuel procurement, compacting and transporting of chips, small-scale low-temperature drying and foliage and bark separation are needed.
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| 47. |
- Eriksson, Ola, et al.
(författare)
-
Swedish Forest Harvest Level Considering Demand of Biomass for Energy Purposes
- 2018
-
Ingår i: FORMATH. - : FORMATH Research Group. - 2188-5729. ; 17
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper presents the development and demonstration of an approach for incorporating decisions concerning forest management within the framework of a TIMES energy system model. The presented model explicitly incorporates a number of long-term applicable forest harvest trajectories, thereby endogenously linking decisions concerning harvest levels with the development of the energy system. The operation of the model is demonstrated by evaluating the optimal long-term harvesting level of Swedish forests for the development of the bioenergy and forest industry sectors. The experimental results suggest that in the short term (between 2010 and 2035), an increased national forest harvest level would be beneficial for the joint development of the two sectors. Such a short-term increase in harvest levels of forest biomass sources would ensure an adequate and reliable supply of biomass sources for the expansion of the two sectors. However, in the long term (between 2070 and 2100), the endogenously computed forest harvest level stabilized at a reference harvest level corresponding to a continuation of the current trend in forest harvest levels. While the emphasis of this paper is on the methodological development of the model, the experimental results highlights the importance of considering cross-sectorial implications when assessing the future developments of the bioenergy and forest industrial sectors.
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| 48. |
- Fernandez Lacruz, Raul, et al.
(författare)
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Distribution, characteristics and potential of biomass-dense thinning forests in Sweden
- 2015
-
Ingår i: Silva Fennica. - : Finnish Society of Forest Science. - 0037-5330 .- 2242-4075. ; 49
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Understanding the characteristics of unutilized biomass resources, such as small-diameter trees from biomass-dense thinning forests (BDTF) (non-commercially-thinned forests), can provide important information for developing a bio-based economy. The aim of this study was to describe the areal distribution, characteristics (biomass of growing stock, tree height, etc.) and harvesting potential of BDTF in Sweden. A national forest inventory plot dataset was imported into a geographical information system and plots containing BDTF were selected by applying increasingly stringent constraints. Results show that, depending on the constraints applied, BDTF covers 9–44% (2.1–9.8 M ha) of the productive forest land area, and contains 7–34% of the total growing stock (119–564 M OD t), with an average biomass density of 57 OD t ha–1. Of the total BDTF area, 65% is located in northern Sweden and 2% corresponds to set-aside farmlands. Comparisons with a study from 2008 indicate that BDTF area has increased by at least 4% (about 102 000 ha), in line with general trends for Sweden and Europe. Analyses revealed that the technical harvesting potential of delimbed stemwood (over bark, including tops) from BDTF ranges from 3.0 to 6.1 M OD t yr–1 (7.5 to 15.1 M m3 yr–1), while the potential of whole-tree harvesting ranges from 4.3 to 8.7 M OD t yr–1 (10.2 to 20.6 M m3 yr–1) depending on the scenario considered. However, further technological developments of the harvest and supply systems are needed to utilize the full potential of BDTF.
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| 49. |
- Fernandez Lacruz, Raul, et al.
(författare)
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GIS-analysis on biomass potential from young forests in North Sweden
- 2013
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Annan publikation (populärvet., debatt m.m.)abstract
- Young dense forests represent an unexploited source of small‐diameter trees to supply the future biorefinery industry in the Botnia‐Atlantica region. A geographical information system (GIS) was applied to evaluate the distribution of young stands in the northern part of Sweden (Norrland). The analysis was based on a dataset containing all forest inventory plots in the country, provided by the National Forest Inventory of Sweden. The GIS also assisted in the calculation of the regional harvesting potentials of different wood assortments. Results from this early stage study showed the area covered by young forests in Norrland is 1.38 million ha, representing 6 % of the total forest area of Sweden.
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| 50. |
- Kons, Kalvis, et al.
(författare)
-
Characteristics of Swedish forest biomass terminals for energy
- 2014
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Ingår i: International Journal of Forest Engineering. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1494-2119 .- 1913-2220. ; 25, s. 238-246
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Forest biomass terminals provide diverse services to the forest industry: buffer storage, transfers of material between different modes of transport, raw material upgrading, etc. Terminals’ operational costs are highly sensitive to their layout and design. In order to design efficient terminals, it will be essential to understand the current state of forest terminals. To this end, a survey was sent out to companies operating forest terminals for energy in Sweden. The respondents were asked to provide information about their terminals’ areas, volumes of material handled, equipment, inventory methods and age. The terminals were grouped into four size classes according to their surface area. Most terminals covered<5ha; terminals in this class accounted for 65% of the country’s total terminal area. In addition, more than half the country’s total forest biomass output was handled at terminals of<2ha. The extent of paving at terminal size classes varied widely from 28 to 60%. Studied terminals handled 14 different assortments; on average, each individual terminal handled 2.4–4.0 assortments. The most widespread assortment was energy wood which accounted for 63% of the total volume handled. Larger terminals were older, often had better measurement equipment than smaller ones and relied more heavily on third parties to perform inventories. Conversely to big terminals, smaller terminals were more likely to have mobile machinery. Our results provide a detailed overview of the state of Sweden’s forest terminals and will be useful in the design of improved biomass terminals in future.
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