| 1. |
- Dyrager, Christine, 1975, et al.
(författare)
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2,6,8-Trisubstituted 3-hydroxychromone derivatives as fluorophores for live-cell imaging.
- 2009
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Ingår i: Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany). - : Wiley. - 1521-3765 .- 0947-6539. ; 15:37, s. 9417-23
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We present the synthesis and photophysical characterisation of a series of structurally diverse, fluorescent 2,6,8-trisubstituted 3-hydroxychromone derivatives with high fluorescence quantum yields and molar extinction coefficients. Two of these derivatives (9 and 10 a) have been studied as fluorophores for cellular imaging in HeLa cells and show excellent permeability and promising fluorescence properties in a cellular environment. In addition, we have demonstrated by photophysical characterisation of 3-isobutyroxychromone derivatives that esterification of the 3-hydroxyl group results in acceptable and useful fluorescence properties.
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| 2. |
- Odeck, James, et al.
(författare)
-
Hva kjennetegner samfunnsøkonomisk lønnsomme vegprosjekte : En analyse basert på data fra nasjonale transportplaner i Norge og Sverige
- 2023
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- I denne studien undersøker vi hvilke faktorer som kjennetegner samfunnsøkonomisk lønnsomme vegprosjekter. Vårt utgangspunkt for studien er at slike faktorer kan identifiseres i en tidlig fase av prosjektgenerering, før man har gjennomført en grundig samfunnsøkonomisk analyse. Dermed kan en unngå å videreutvikle (og kanskje binde seg politisk til) prosjekter som siden viser seg å føre til tap av samfunnets ressurser på bekostning av andre potensielt lønnsomme prosjekter. Til tross for at problemstillingen er viktig å undersøke, er det få publiserte studier som har undersøkt dette like grundig som vi gjør her. De studiene som har vært inne på problemstillingen har heller ikke analysert data fra to land samlet og trukket frem forskjeller mellom landene. Resultatene av vår studie er derfor også et viktig bidrag til den internasjonale forskningslitteraturen.
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| 3. |
- Rubensson, Isak, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Distribution of Subsidies In Public Transport : Case of Stockholm
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Annan publikation (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Changes in fare schemes or service provision as well as changes in travelers’ behavior affect the distribution of public transport subsidies. This study proposes a method where service operation costs are distributed on individual trips to determine each origin-destination pairs service operation cost. In combination with travel survey data on socioeconomic composition and fare scheme data, it is then possible to assess the distribution of subsidies and their dynamics. In the case of Stockholm public transport, we present socioeconomic distribution of subsidies with regard to age, income, sex, and occupation. We find that the existing subsidies are mildly regressive, that a change to distance dependent fares would yield a more regressive distribution and that targeted reductions in fares for students, children and elderly increase progressivity. The presented methodology provides policymakers with a tool to accurately analyze distributional effects in subsidies of policy changes concerning both fare policy and service supply policy.
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| 4. |
- Rubensson, Isak, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Distribution of Subsidies In Public Transport – Case of Stockholm
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Annan publikation (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Changes in fare schemes or service provision as well as changes in travelers’ behavior affect the distribution of public transport subsidies. This study proposes a method where service operation costs are distributed on individual trips to determine each origin-destination pairs service operation cost. In combination with travel survey data on socioeconomic composition and fare scheme data, it is then possible to assess the distribution of subsidies and their dynamics. In the case of Stockholm public transport, we present socioeconomic distribution of subsidies with regard to age, income, sex, and occupation. We find that the existing subsidies are mildly regressive, that a change to distance dependent fares would yield a more regressive distribution and that targeted reductions in fares for students, children and elderly increase progressivity. The presented methodology provides policymakers with a tool to accurately analyze distributional effects in subsidies of policy changes concerning both fare policy and service supply policy.
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| 5. |
- Xylia, Maria
(författare)
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Towards electrified public bus transport : The case of Stockholm
- 2018
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This thesis addresses the challenge of road transport electrification using a systems approach for the particular context of Stockholm’s public transport system. The objective is to identify the benefits of large-scale bus electrification on energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as the cost and planning considerations required for achieving such a shift. Quantitative and qualitative methods are deployed for answering the research questions, including the development and use of an optimisation model, survey research, and interviews. The results of the optimisation model developed for this thesis show that an optimal system configuration is obtained with a combination of electricity and biodiesel. The high energy efficiency of electric buses would lead to a significant reduction of energy consumption in Stockholm, even if not all bus routes in the network are electrified. Although larger battery capacities could support the electrification of more bus routes, this does not necessarily lead to lower environmental impact. In any case, electricity from renewable sources should be used to maximise emission reductions. The results also show that the annual costs necessary to invest in electric buses can be balanced by lower fuel costs. An effective utilisation of the charging infrastructure is of high priority in order to justify the costs of the required investments. The model results confirm the benefits of creating a dense initial network of charging stations in the inner city’s public transport hubs, which would facilitate the electrification of multiple routes and high infrastructure utilisation at lower costs. The survey and interviews with stakeholders indicate that multiple issues affect the choice of charging technology, not just costs. Compatibility, reliability, bus dwell time, as well as weather conditions and visual impact are some of the additional aspects taken into account. The introduction of electricity tax exemption for electric buses, the expansion of the electric bus premium to include private stakeholders, as well as the expansion of infrastructure investment subsidy programmes are among the policy instruments suggested for assisting a faster introduction of electric buses into Stockholm’s public transport system. Although the focus is on Stockholm, the conclusions of this work can be applicable to other cities in Sweden and around the world, which also face the challenge of making public transport a more sustainable option.
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| 6. |
- Andersson, Angelica, et al.
(författare)
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Long-distance mode choice estimation on joint travel survey and mobile phone network data
- 2024
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Ingår i: Sammanställning av referat från Transportforum 2024. - Linköping : Statens väg- och transportforskningsinstitut. ; , s. 91-92
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Both survey data and mobile phone network data are associated with benefits and limitations. Mobile phone network data is limited in its lack of ground truth for the bus and car split, in the lack of socio-economic information about the traveller, as well as in the lack of information about trip purpose. Survey data on the other hand nowadays often has too few observations to obtain significance in important parameters, and it is unlikely that they capture a representative sample of the population. In this paper we investigate to what extent combining the two data sources for mode choice demand model estimation can mitigate the challenges present when only using a single data source, as well as to what extent the estimation can be improved by adding variables unique to the survey data. We also provide recommendations for data collection and combination for future mode choice demand models and analyse policy implications of the estimated results. We show that in our case the business cost parameter becomes insignificant when basing the estimation on survey data only. The business cost parameter is important to compute values of travel times which are relevant for social cost benefit analyses. A benefit of combining the two data sources is that we can both identify latent class variables which capture the correct business group in the latent class structure of the mobile phone network data, and simultaneously obtain better estimates of those variables based on observations from the survey data. Most of the elasticity results in this paper are on par with previous studies; however our results suggest higher cross-elasticities in response to train travel time than what has previously been observed, which could have implications for the social valuation of investments in high speed rail. In this paper we have shown that the proposed method of data combination is indeed valid, and that by combining the two data sources we can mitigate the limitations of each separate data source and thus maintain good quality mode choice demand forecasting models, even in the face of declining survey response rates.
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| 7. |
- Andersson, Angelica, et al.
(författare)
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Long-distance mode choice model estimation using mobile phone network data
- 2022
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Ingår i: Journal of Choice Modelling. - : Elsevier. - 1755-5345. ; 42
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In this paper we develop two methods for the use of mobile phone data to support the estimation of long-distance mode choice models. Both methods are based on logit formulations in which we define likelihood functions and use maximum likelihood estimation. Mobile phone data consists of information about a sequence of antennae that have detected each phone, so the mode choice is not actually observed. In the first trip-based method, the mode of each trip is inferred by a separate procedure, and the estimation process is then straightforward. However, since it is not always possible to determine the mode choice with certainty (although it is possible in the majority of cases), this method might give biased results. In our second antenna-based method we therefore base the likelihood function on the sequences of antennae that have detected the phones. The estimation aims at finding a parameter vector in the mode choice model that would explain the observed sequences best. The main challenge with the antenna-based method is the need for detailed resolution of the available data. In this paper we show the derivation of the two methods, that they coincide in case of certainty about the chosen mode and discuss the validity of assumptions and their advantages and disadvantages. Furthermore, we apply the first trip-based method to empirical data and compare the results of two different ways of implementing it.
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| 8. |
- Andersson, Angelica, et al.
(författare)
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Long-distance mode choice model estimation using mobile phone network data
- 2022
-
Ingår i: Journal of Choice Modelling. - : Elsevier. - 1755-5345. ; 42
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In this paper we develop two methods for the use of mobile phone data to support the estimation of long-distance mode choice models. Both methods are based on logit formulations in which we define likelihood functions and use maximum likelihood estimation. Mobile phone data consists of information about a sequence of antennae that have detected each phone, so the mode choice is not actually observed. In the first trip-based method, the mode of each trip is inferred by a separate procedure, and the estimation process is then straightforward. However, since it is not always possible to determine the mode choice with certainty (although it is possible in the majority of cases), this method might give biased results. In our second antenna-based method we therefore base the likelihood function on the sequences of antennae that have detected the phones. The estimation aims at finding a parameter vector in the mode choice model that would explain the observed sequences best. The main challenge with the antenna-based method is the need for detailed resolution of the available data. In this paper we show the derivation of the two methods, that they coincide in case of certainty about the chosen mode and discuss the validity of assumptions and their advantages and disadvantages. Furthermore, we apply the first trip-based method to empirical data and compare the results of two different ways of implementing it.
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| 9. |
- Andersson, Angelica, et al.
(författare)
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Mode Choice Latent Class Estimation on Mobile Network Data
- 2024
-
Ingår i: SSRN Electronic Journal. - : Elsevier BV. - 1556-5068.
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Annan publikation (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In this paper we use a nested latent class logit specification to define and estimate a large-scale mode choice demand forecasting model. We estimate this model based on mobile phone network data translated to roughly 100 000 long-distance trips within Sweden, achieving convergence of the model and credible parameter estimates. We develop methods to address two problems stemming from the nature of this data: the difficulties of distinguishing bus trips from car trips (since they share the same infrastructure) and distinguishing business from private trips (since trip purpose is unknown). To address the first issue, we estimate a nested logit model with an artificial nest that accounts for the differences in utility between bus and car. To address the latter issue, we estimate a latent class model, identifying classes of trips interpreted as private and business trips. Addressing these two issues substantially improves model fit.
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| 10. |
- Andersson, Angelica
(författare)
-
Mode choice modelling of long-distance passenger transport based on mobile phone network data
- 2022
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Reliable forecasting models are needed to achieve the climate related goals in the face of increasing transport demand. Such models can predict the long-term behavioural response to policy interventions, including infrastructure investments, and thus provide valuable pre-dictions for decision makers. Contemporary forecasting models are mainly based on national travel surveys. Unfortunately, the response rates of such surveys have steadily declined, implying that the respondents become less representative of the whole population. A particular weakness is that it is likely that respondents with a high valuation of time are less willing to respond to surveys (because they have less time available for such), and therefore there is a high chance that they are underrepresented among the respondents. The valuation of time plays an important role for the cost benefit analyses of public policies including transport investments, and there is no reliable way of controlling for this uneven sampling of time preferences. Fortunately, there is simultaneously an increase in the number of signals sent between mobile phones and network antennae, and research has now reached the point where it is possible to determine not only the travel destination but also the travel mode based on mobile phone network antennae connections. The aim of this thesis is to investigate if and how mobile phone network data can be used to estimate transportation mode choice demand models that can be used for forecasting and planning. Key challenges with using this data source in the context of mode choice models are identified and met. The identified challenges include uncertainty in the choice variable, the difficulty to distinguish car and bus trips, and the lack of information about the trip purpose. In the first paper we propose three possible model formulations and analyse how the uncertainty in the choice outcome variable would play a role in the different model formulations. We also conclude that it is indeed possible to estimate mode choice demand models based on mobile phone network data, with good results in terms of behavioural interpretability and significance. In the second paper we estimate models using a nested logit structure to account for the difficulty in separating bus and car, and a latent class model specification to meet the challenge of having an unknown trip purpose.
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| 11. |
- Andersson, Angelica, 1990-
(författare)
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Modelling long-distance travel demand by combining mobile phone and survey data
- 2024
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Forecasts of the demand for long-distance travel are a key component enabling the calculation of social costs and benefits of policy actions such as infrastructure investments. Traditionally, such forecasting models have been based on travel survey data. However, response rates to travel surveys have been in decline for decades, calling into question whether the sample of respondents is really representative of the full population. As such, there is a need to explore alternative data sources. One promising alternative is mobile phone network data, which is collected without the need of active participation from the traveller. However, mobile phone network data in this thesis lacks trip and traveller specific information such as trip purpose, socio-economic information, travel party size and mode. Furthermore, it is difficult to distinguish between bus and car trips even at a later stage of data processing, as the two modes share the same infrastructure. The objective of this thesis is to investigate the use of mobile phone network data for long-distance mode choice modelling. More specifically, we investigate the specific aspects of mobile phone network data as a source of mode choice travel information in the first research paper of this thesis, how uncertainties connected to the identification of the used mode matter, and how it can be handled in the model. In the second research paper of this thesis, a full-scale Multinomial Logit mode choice model is implemented and evaluated, including the development of how to handle mobile phone network data-specific challenges in the dataset of this thesis, such as the lack of distinction between bus and car trips and the lack of trip purpose information. Once this full-scale mode choice model based only on mobile phone network data has been evaluated, a method for combining mobile phone network data with survey data is proposed in the third research paper of this thesis, and the joint model is compared to the mobile phone network data model in terms of behavioural credibility. Finally, it is investigated whether machine learning can be useful in modelling mode choices using the two data sources in the fourth research paper of this thesis. From the results of the papers included in this thesis, it is clear that it is possible to model mode choice based only on mobile phone network data, but that it is preferable to combine mobile phone network data with survey data, rather than to use any one data source separately. Either Multinomial Logit (MNL) models or Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) can be used to model mode choices based on the two data sources. However, if ANN is selected for mode choice modelling, it is advisable to formulate the network based on the transport mode choice specific principles developed in the last paper of this thesis.
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| 12. |
- Bastian, Anne, et al.
(författare)
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Explaining “peak car” with economic variables
- 2016
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Ingår i: Transportation Research Part A. - : Elsevier. - 0965-8564 .- 1879-2375. ; 2016:88, s. 236-250
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Many western countries have seen a plateau and subsequent decrease of car travel during the 21st century. What has generated particular interest and debate is the statement that the development cannot be explained by changes in traditional explanatory factors such as GDP and fuel prices. Instead, it has been argued, the observed trends are indications of substantial changes in lifestyles, preferences and attitudes to car travel; what we are experiencing is not just a temporary plateau, but a true “peak car”. However, this study shows that the traditional variables GDP and fuel price are in fact sufficient to explain the observed trends in car traffic in all the countries included in our study: the United States, France, the United Kingdom, Sweden and (to a large extent) Australia and Germany. We argue that the importance of the fuel price increases in the early 2000s has been underappreciated in the studies that shaped the later debate. Results also indicate that GDP elasticities tend to decrease with rising GDP, and that fuel price elasticities tend to increase at high price levels and during periods of rapid price increases.
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| 13. |
- Bastian, Anne, et al.
(författare)
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Peak Car for urban Swedish men?
- 2014
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Ingår i: Proceedings of Symposium of the European Association for Research in Transportation (hEART),September 10, 2014 – September 12, 2014, Leeds, UK.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- We study long-term trends in regional car travel demand within and across socio-demographic groups in Sweden, using cross-sectional data from National Travel Surveys, spanning the period from 1978 to 2011. We find that the reduction in per-adult driving in Sweden mainly occurs among urban men. Urban men of all income groups reduced their driving for both commuting and non-commuting trips in conjunction with rising gasoline prices, which may have contributed to this development. We find that driving among those socio-demographic groups, who have better opportunities to reduce their driving, and driving for discretionary rather than commute purposes is being reduced over time. Sweden is ranked among the most gender-equal countries in the world; yet we find a substantial remaining gender gap in the share of adults driving a car on an average day, even when controlling for other socio-economic differences.
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| 14. |
- Bastian, Anne, et al.
(författare)
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The city as a driver of new mobility patterns, cycling and gender equality : Travel behaviour trends in Stockholm 1985–2015
- 2018
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Ingår i: Travel Behaviour & Society. - : Elsevier Ltd. - 2214-367X .- 2214-3688. ; 13, s. 71-87
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper analyses changes in individual travel behaviour in Stockholm County over 30 years, using three large cross-sectional travel survey data sets. It shows that travel patterns have diverged over time between city, suburban and rural residents. The trends in travel behaviour that we find are consistent with changes in the labour market, ICT use, land-use and transport policy, gender equality, and population composition trends. The inner city has become increasingly attractive: the share of trips is to the inner city is increasing for all purposes, socio-economic groups, and residential locations. The reduction of car traffic in response to the introduction of the congestion charges in 2006 is more than compensated by an increase in bicycle and transit trips to the inner city. Travel times by car are increasing in the city, although the car traffic volumes have decreased. The travel behaviour gender gap has closed completely in the inner city, but not further out in the region or in the rest of the country. Understanding long term trends in travel behaviour in different population segments, and the context under which they occur, helps to understand how the conditions, opportunities and constraints for different population segments are changing, which is key for transport policy and land-use planning. Since the societal trends driving travel behaviour in Stockholm and Sweden are much the same in many cities and countries, the findings are of general relevance.
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| 15. |
- Batley, Richard, et al.
(författare)
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New appraisal values of travel time saving and reliability in Great Britain
- 2019
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Ingår i: Transportation. - : Springer. - 0049-4488 .- 1572-9435. ; 46:3, s. 583-621
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper provides an overview of the study Provision of market research for value of time savings and reliability' undertaken by the Arup/ITS Leeds/Accent consortium for the UK Department for Transport (DfT). The paper summarises recommendations for revised national average values of in-vehicle travel time savings, reliability and time-related quality (e.g. crowding and congestion), which were developed using willingness-to-pay (WTP) methods, for a range of modes, and covering both business and non-work travel purposes. The paper examines variation in these values by characteristics of the traveller and trip, and offers insights into the uncertainties around the values, especially through the calculation of confidence intervals. With regards to non-work, our recommendations entail an increase of around 50% in values for commute, but a reduction of around 25% for other non-workrelative to previous DfT WebTAG' guidance. With regards to business, our recommendations are based on WTP, and thus represent a methodological shift away from the cost saving approach (CSA) traditionally used in WebTAG. These WTP-based business values show marked variation by distance; for trips of less than 20miles, values are around 75% lower than previous WebTAG values; for trips of around 100miles, WTP-based values are comparable to previous WebTAG; and for longer trips still, WTP-based values exceed those previously in WebTAG.
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| 16. |
- Bernhardsson, Susanne, 1958, et al.
(författare)
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Implementation of physical activity on prescription for children with obesity in paediatric health care (IMPA): protocol for a feasibility and evaluation study using quantitative and qualitative methods
- 2022
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Ingår i: Pilot and Feasibility Studies. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 2055-5784. ; 8:1
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background: Physical inactivity is a main cause of childhood obesity which tracks into adulthood obesity, making it important to address early in life. Physical activity on prescription (PAP) is an evidence-based intervention that has shown good effect on physical activity levels in adults, but has not been evaluated in children with obesity. This project aims to evaluate the prerequisites, determinants, and feasibility of implementing PAP adapted to children with obesity and to explore children's, parents', and healthcare providers' experiences of PAP. Methods: In the first phase of the project, healthcare providers and managers from 26 paediatric clinics in Region Vastra Gotaland, Sweden, will be invited to participate in a web-based survey and a subset of this sample for a focus group study. Findings from these two data collections will form the basis for adaptation of PAP to the target group and context. In a second phase, this adapted PAP intervention will be evaluated in a clinical study in a sample of approximately 60 children with obesity (ISO-BMI > 30) between 6 and 12 years of age and one of their parents/legal guardians. Implementation process and clinical outcomes will be assessed pre- and post-intervention and at 8 and 12 months' follow-up. Implementation outcomes are the four core constructs of the Normalization Process Theory; coherence, cognitive participation, collective action, and reflexive monitoring; and appropriateness, acceptability, and feasibility of the PAP intervention. Additional implementation process outcomes are recruitment and attrition rates, intervention fidelity, dose, and adherence. Clinical outcomes are physical activity pattern, BMI, metabolic risk factors, health-related quality of life, sleep, and self-efficacy and motivation for physical activity. Lastly, we will explore the perspectives of children and parents in semi-structured interviews. Design and analysis of the included studies are guided by the Normalization Process Theory. Discussion: This project will provide new knowledge regarding the feasibility of PAP for children with obesity and about whether and how an evidence-based intervention can be fitted and adapted to new contexts and populations. The results may inform a larger scale trial and future implementation and may enhance the role of PAP in the management of obesity in paediatric health care in Sweden.
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| 17. |
- Berry, Carl, 1994-
(författare)
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Income and Fuel Price Elasticities of Car Use
- 2022
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Understanding how car travel and ownership respond to income and fuel prices, and how that response varies between households is crucial for car use policies and forecasts. This thesis, consisting of two papers, aims to investigate this by estimating the intemporal income and fuel price elasticities of car use using micro registry panel data on all Swedish households from 1998 to 2018. In Paper I, the income and fuel price elasticities of vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) is estimated for all Swedish households using a linear fixed effects model. In order to investigate how different groups respond, the elasticities are estimated by income group and municipality type. The effect of income and fuel prices on VKT is largest in the middle of the income distribution but is relatively stable across municipality types. The effect of fuel prices on VKT is largest in densely populated municipalities compared to rural municipalities. Moreover, it is shown that the income elasticity is underestimated if income variable is misspecified. Paper II utilises a discrete-continuous model accounting for the effect of income and fuel prices on car ownership. It is shown that income impacts car ownership and VKT conditional on car ownership of similar magnitude, while fuel prices primarily impact VKT conditional on car ownership. Furthermore, we also estimate the model on six partially overlapping sample periods and find that the income elasticity has decreased over time, while the absolute fuel price elasticity increased up until the early 2010s and decreased thereafter.
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| 18. |
- Berry, Carl, et al.
(författare)
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Income and fuel price elasticities of car use on micro panel data
- 2024
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Ingår i: Energy Economics. - : Elsevier. - 0140-9883 .- 1873-6181. ; 135:July
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We estimate the income and fuel price elasticities of private car vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) using fixed effects on registry micro panel data covering all Swedish households from 1999 to 2018. Such registry data, covering all individuals and cars in the country, are unique to Nordic countries and are comprehensive enough to allow fine segmentation of the population by both income groups and several municipality types. To address potential endogeneity arising if employees receive a wage compensation for long commutes, we apply the temporal changes in earned income tax credits as an instrumental variable. We find lower income and price elasticities (in absolute value) in the large cities, and larger elasticities in suburbs, other cities and in rural areas. We also find that the elasticities decrease with income, excluding the lowest income quartile, having the lowest elasticities. Specifically, we show theoretically and empirically that because the income elasticity varies considerably along the income distribution, the resulting income elasticity depends heavily on how the estimator assigns weight to different income groups, unless the specification explicitly allows for variation in the impact of income on VKT. Moreover, the impact of an income increase depends on to whom the income increase accrues to. For a uniform income increase, 0.2 is the preferred income elasticity. Our preferred long-run fuel price elasticity is −0.53. The short-run elasticities are lower. These elasticities apply to the full population and not only to car owners or drivers.
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| 19. |
- Berry, Carl, et al.
(författare)
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Modelling the effect of income and fuel prices on the joint choice of car ownership and use : a panel data approach
- 2024
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Ingår i: Sammanställning av referat från Transportforum 2024. - Linköping : Statens väg- och transportforskningsinstitut. ; , s. 60-61
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Understanding how households’ car ownership and use respond to changes in income and fuel price is essential for travel demand forecasts and the design of car use policies. The literature estimating the effect of income and fuel prices on car use have almost exclusively studied the decision of owning a car and how much to drive as two separate choices. This may potentially result in the failure to capture the full response of the household or in model misspecification. In this paper, we estimate the income and fuel price elasticities of the joint decision of car ownership and car travel on household registry micro panel data using a discrete-continuous model. We use a correlated random effects approach to control for unobservable household heterogeneity. Our discrete-continuous model allows us to estimate the effect of income and fuel price on car ownership, car travel conditional on car ownership, and the total effect on vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT). We use a register database covering the Swedish population from the years 1999 to 2018, containing 96.7 million observations. The database includes socio-economic information on all registered adult Swedes, and information about all privately owned cars.We find an income elasticity of VKT 0.4, half the elasticity comes from the impact of income on car ownership and the other half from the car travel conditional on car ownership. Hence, estimating the income elasticity of VKT on only car owners as earlier studies on micro panel data studies have done can underestimate the elasticity.The model yields the fuel price elasticity of VKT -0.72 which is larger than has been found by meta-studies, but only slightly larger than the previous micro panel data studies and the previous discrete-continuous studies. We find that fuel prices primarily impact car travel and has a smaller impact on car ownership.
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| 20. |
- Berry, Carl, et al.
(författare)
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The impact of company cars on fuel choice and car characteristics
- 2024
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Ingår i: Sammanställning av referat från Transportforum 2024. - Linköping : Statens väg- och transportforskningsinstitut. ; , s. 63-64
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Given the urgency and costliness of climate abatement policies, it is surprising that company cars, cars that are provided as fringe benefits to employees for private use, have received relatively little attention from policymakers and researchers. The taxation of company car is typically designed such that the employee pays a portion of the car's value as a taxable benefit, which is subject to income tax. However, in most OECD countries, company cars can be possessed and driven at a lower cost than the expenses of a private car. Previous studies have shown that company cars benefits, lead to increased size and power of the car, higher car ownership, and welfare losses. Furthermore, many countries have reduced cost for less-polluting company cars. This may induce larger welfare losses, unless they actually do speed up the renewal of car fleet to less-polluting cars efficiently.In this paper we study to what extent company car taxation policies impact the choice of new car. to estimate how new company cars differs from new private cars in fuel type, weight, size, and engine power. Furthermore for 2019 and 2020 we also estimate the difference in carbon dioxide emissions and fuel costs between new company car and new private cars, which we use to calculate the welfare effects of company car benefits.We use Swedish registry data covering the entire adult Swedish population from 1999 to 2020 and apply a matching model to control for selection into company car possession. The model combines exact matching and Mahalanobis distance matching, and matches upon socio-demographic variables, preference for car use, and previous company car possession.We find that company car benefits lead to a larger share of alternative fuel but the also increases, the size, the weight, and the engine power of the car. The policy leads to welfare losses due to the increased car expenditures exceeds the gain from reducing carbon dioxide emissions and fuel costs.
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| 21. |
- Bornhöft, Lena, et al.
(författare)
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Development and feasibility of a function-based preventive intervention for lifestyle-related disorders
- 2024
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Ingår i: BMC PUBLIC HEALTH. - 1471-2458. ; 24:1
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- BackgroundThe enormous effect of lifestyle-related disorders on health of the global population warrants the development of preventive interventions. Focusing on musculoskeletal health and physical activity may be a way to encourage necessary lifestyle changes by making them more concrete and understandable. The aims of the current study were to develop a function-based preventive intervention aimed at lifestyle-related disorders in physically inactive 40-year-old people and to investigate the feasibility of the intervention. The feasibility study aimed to solve practical and logistical challenges and to develop the intervention based on the experiences of participants and involved clinical personnel according to defined criteria.MethodsDevelopment of the standardised functional examination was based on literature-validated tests and clinical reasoning. Development of a risk profile was based on the functional examination and similar profiles which have already proved feasible. The feasibility of the functional examination and risk profile, together with function-based lifestyle counselling was tested on 27 participants in a pilot study with two physiotherapist examinations over a four-month period. Practical results and feedback from participants and collaborating personnel were examined.ResultsThe functional examination consists of 20 established tests not requiring specialised equipment or training which were deemed relevant for a middle-aged population and a sub-maximal ergometer test. The risk profile consists of seven functional dimensions: cardiovascular fitness, strength in upper extremity, lower extremity and trunk, mobility, balance and posture, and three non-functional dimensions: weight, self-assessed physical activity and pain. Each dimension contains at least two measures. The participants appreciated the intervention and found it motivating for making lifestyle changes. They found the tests and risk profile understandable and could see them as tools to help achieve concrete goals. The examination required 60-75 min for one physiotherapist. The recruitment rate was low and recruited participants were highly motivated to making lifestyle changes.ConclusionThis project developed a functional test battery and risk profile aimed at inactive 40-year-olds which fulfilled our feasibility criteria. Functional screening and lifestyle counselling were found to be of value to a sub-group of inactive 40-year-olds who were already motivated to improve their health situations.
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| 22. |
- Bratt Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Jättestor nytta, men ännu större kostnad
- 2016
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Ingår i: Dagens Nyheter. - : Dagens Nyhter AB. - 1101-2447.
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Tidskriftsartikel (populärvet., debatt m.m.)
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| 23. |
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| 24. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Agglomeration, productivity and the role of transport system improvements
- 2019
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Ingår i: Economics of Transportation. - : Elsevier Ltd. - 2212-0122 .- 2212-0130. ; 18, s. 27-39
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We explore how transport improvements impact agglomeration defined as accessibility and thereby productivity in mid-Sweden including Stockholm 1995–2006. We apply an accessibility index derived from a multi-modal transport model. This is a more accurate measure of agglomeration than those previously used and also necessary for understanding how governments can impact agglomeration, and thereby productivity, by transport investments. We regress temporal changes in wages on temporal changes in agglomeration by applying a FE estimator. We deal with the potential endogeneity using a novel instrumental variable. Our best estimates of the agglomeration elasticity on productivity lie within the interval 0.028–0.035.
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| 25. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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An ex-post CBA for the Stockholm Metro
- 2014
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Ingår i: Transportation Research Part A. - : Elsevier BV. - 0965-8564 .- 1879-2375. ; 70, s. 135-148
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper performs an ex-post cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of the Metro system in Stockholm built in the 1950s. We find that the Metro was socially beneficial and that the largest benefit of the Metro is its capacity, making it possible for many people to travel to and from the city center. We also assess the significance of the wider economic impacts due to labor market distortions and the land-use effects in the case of the Stockholm Metro. The wider economic impacts increase the consumer surplus with 48%, and the yearly income in the county with 1.5%. A land-use model is used to simulate how the land-use has been influenced by the Metro over the years 1956-2006. This simulation indicates that the historical centralized planning of housing along transit corridors has developed the region into a more dispersed region than if the market forces had ruled. The simulation also suggests that the land-use impact from the investment itself is small, but that the land-use impact from the planning accompanying the decision to build the Metro has been substantial.
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| 26. |
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| 27. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Assessing the welfare effects of congestion charges in a real world setting
- 2014
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Ingår i: Transportation Research Part E. - : Elsevier BV. - 1366-5545 .- 1878-5794. ; 70, s. 339-355
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The standard textbook analysis shows that drivers as a group lose from congestion charges. However, it omits taste heterogeneity, shorter travel times far out in the larger network arising from less blocking back of upstream links and the possibility for drivers to reschedule. Taking account of these factors, using a dynamic scheduling model with heterogeneous users we find that all three add significantly to the benefit of the Stockholm congestion charges and that drivers as a group benefit from these charges even without recycling of revenues. This paper also provides an update on the consumer benefits of the Stockholm charges.
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| 28. |
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| 29. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Can repeated surveys reveal the variation of the value of travel time over time?
- 2023
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Ingår i: Transportation. - : Springer. - 0049-4488 .- 1572-9435. ; 50, s. 245-284
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper studies intertemporal changes in the value of travel time (VTT) and investigates whether the change of VTT over time can be studied based on national VTT data, collected at two points in time. We use repeated national VTT data from the Netherlands and Sweden, collected 13 and 14 years apart. The results show mostly a declining VTT for a given income level. The results show also a large within-country heterogeneity across modes and purposes, in the cross-sectional income elasticity of the VTT, and in its development over time. The explanation most consistent with our results and those of others is that the VTT has in fact increased due to income increases, but that the repeated stated choice data cannot detect this given the data, methodology and population changes. In particular, it seems that the response rate has dropped considerably in the later surveys partly due to a higher share of (busy) respondents declining to be recruited. The main contribution of this paper is to document the differences between the studies carried out in different years, indicating the reasons why it is difficult to identify temporal changes in the VTT.
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| 30. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Can repeated surveys reveal the variation of the value of travel time over time?
- 2023
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Ingår i: Transportation. - : Springer. - 0049-4488 .- 1572-9435. ; 50:1, s. 245-284
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper studies intertemporal changes in the value of travel time (VTT) and investigates whether the change of VTT over time can be studied based on national VTT data, collected at two points in time. We use repeated national VTT data from the Netherlands and Sweden, collected 13 and 14 years apart. The results show mostly a declining VTT for a given income level. The results show also a large within-country heterogeneity across modes and purposes, in the cross-sectional income elasticity of the VTT, and in its development over time. The explanation most consistent with our results and those of others is that the VTT has in fact increased due to income increases, but that the repeated stated choice data cannot detect this given the data, methodology and population changes. In particular, it seems that the response rate has dropped considerably in the later surveys partly due to a higher share of (busy) respondents declining to be recruited. The main contribution of this paper is to document the differences between the studies carried out in different years, indicating the reasons why it is difficult to identify temporal changes in the VTT.
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| 31. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Catching the tail : Empirical identification of the distribution of the value of travel time
- 2012
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Ingår i: Transportation Research Part A. - : Elsevier BV. - 0965-8564 .- 1879-2375. ; 46:2, s. 378-391
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Recent methodological advances in discrete choice analysis in combination with certain stated choice experiments have allowed researchers to check empirically the identification of the distribution of latent variables such as the value of travel time (VTT). Lack of identification is likely to be common and the consequences are severe. E.g., the Danish value of time study found the 15% right tail of the VTT distribution to be unidentified, making it impossible to estimate the mean VTT without resorting to strong assumptions with equally strong impact on the resulting estimate. This paper analyses data generated from a similar choice experiment undertaken in Sweden during 2007–2008 in which the range of trade-off values between time and money was significantly increased relative to the Danish experiment. The results show that this change allowed empirical identification of effectively the entire VTT distribution. In addition to informing the design of future choice experiments, the results are also of interest as a validity test of the stated choice methodology. Failure in identifying the right tail of the VTT would have made it difficult to maintain that respondents’ behaviour is consistent with utility maximisation in the sense intended by the experimenter.
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| 32. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-
(författare)
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Communication technology and travel demand models
- 2003
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Transportation planners have traditionally focused on physical travel only, and disregarded the fact that other modes of communication may influence travel demand. However, modern telecommunications are rapidly increasing the accessibility to activities that previously only could be reached by physical transportation. This development calls for methods to analyse interactions between telecommunications and transport systems. The objective of this thesis is to accomplish a better understanding of if and how impacts of information technology could be implemented in travel demand models. An important part of this issue is to investigate what kind of data that is needed.This thesis also aims at investigating whether the Communication Survey, KOM, collected by Swedish Institute for Transport and Communications, SIKA, can be used to improve transport modelling with respect to how modern telecommunications influence travel demand. KOM is a one-day travel and communication diary survey, including information on the respondents telecommuting habits as well as socio-economic status. One problem was the small sample size in KOM, which made the analyses uncertain. Since KOM is collected on a yearly basis, it is still possible to apply similar analysis methods within a few years, using a larger data set, which might enable extended analyses. The small sample in KOM available to date is best suited for general descriptive analyses of communication patterns in Sweden. The main conclusions of the paper are therefore connected to the methods and future data collection.The thesis includes three papers. The first paper tested a model approach that assumes substitution between travel and non-travel based communication, using the KOM database. Travel demand models are in general constructed as nested logit models with frequency, mode and destination choice levels. In the paper, non-travel based modes of communication were included in the choice set of such a model. The non-travel based modes of communication considered were Internet (and e-mail), ordinary mail and telephone contacts. The second and third papers investigate telecommuting. As a first step to reach the goal of forecasting telecommuting, the second paper examined the characteristics of current telecommuters by use of KOM. This was mainly accomplished by estimating a telecommuting adoption model of logit type. However, only 122 employees out of 7578 actually telecommutes full days at home. These telecommuters work primarily in information- and service-based industrial sectors concerned with computers, finance or communication. The difficulties in describing the utility of the telecommunications based alternatives (representing ”no travel”) concerned also the telecommuting adoption model. The third paper used data collected from a working site within the company Ericsson, located in the office district of Nacka Strand in Stockholm during the autumn 2002. The telecommuting frequency was substantially higher at Ericsson than in the workforce as a whole. The propensity to adopt telecommuting was modelled as a function of socio-economic variables and access to technical equipment, work task suitability and management attitudes, as perceived by the employees. The focus was to identify tools that the company can use to promote telecommuting, and to find incentives for the company to promote telecommuting. Technical equipment, suitable work tasks and managers attitude were identified as constraints for telecommuting.
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| 33. |
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| 34. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Distributional effects of public transport subsidies
- 2020
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Ingår i: Journal of Transport Geography. - : Elsevier BV. - 0966-6923 .- 1873-1236. ; 84
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We analyze the distribution of transit subsidies across population groups in Stockholm. We develop a novel methodology that takes into account that the subsidy per passenger varies across transit links, since production costs and load factors vary. With this, we calculate the subsidy per trip in the transit network and analyze the distribution of subsidies across population groups. The average subsidy rate in Stockholm is 44%, but the variation across trips turns out to be large: while 34% of the trips are not subsidized at all but generates a profit, 16% of the trips have a subsidy rate higher than 2/3. We calculate the concentration index to explore the distribution of subsidies across income groups. The average subsidy per person is similar for all income groups, except for the top income quintile. This holds not only for the current flat-fare system, but also for distance-based fares and fares with a constant subsidy rate. Transit subsidies is hence not effective as a redistribution policy in Stockholm. The largest systematic variation we find is across residential areas: the average subsidy per person is five times higher in the peripheral areas of the region compared to the regional core, and the subsidy per trip is ten times higher.
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| 35. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Do buses hinder cyclists or is it the other way around? : Optimal bus fares, bus stops and cycling tolls
- 2018
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Ingår i: Transportation Research Part A. - : PERGAMON-ELSEVIER SCIENCE LTD. - 0965-8564 .- 1879-2375. ; 111, s. 326-346
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper optimises the number of bus stops, and prices for car, bus and cycling in the busiest inner city corridor in Stockholm. We adopt the representative consumer approach and calibrate the current equilibrium using the quasi-linear utility function. We find that the number of bus stops is already close to optimal. Welfare would increase if the peak frequency was increased, if the bus fares were lowered and differentiated between long trips and short trips and, and that the toll for longer car trips was increased. The optimal toll for cyclists, and the welfare benefit from it, is small and does not compensate the transaction costs. The distributional effects of bus fare changes and higher car tolls are small because on one hand, high income groups place more value on travel time gains, but on the other hand, low income groups travel less frequently by car. Surprisingly, we find that in the welfare optimum, the bus service only requires a small subsidy due to congestion in the bus lane, crowding in the buses, and extra boarding and alighting time per passenger. The Mohring effect is limited because the demand, and thereby the baseline frequency, is already high.
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| 36. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Do Small Cities Need More Public Transport Subsidies Than Big Cities?
- 2019
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Ingår i: Journal of Transport Economics and Policy. - Avon : University of Bath. - 0022-5258 .- 1754-5951. ; 53, s. 275-298
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We compare the optimal public transport subsidies for a representative bus corridor in a small city and in a big city in Sweden, derived by assuming optimal pricing, frequency, bus stop spacing, and bus lane policies. The optimal cost-recovery of the buses depends on the relative size of two costs: waiting time and crowding/congestion. In the big city the high crowding cost is dominating, approaching full cost-recovery in the first-best optimum. In the small city the waiting time dominates, implying larger optimal subsidies. The subsidy is also more effective as a redistribution policy in the small city.
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| 37. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Estimating welfare effects of congestion charges in real world settings
- 2012
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- According to the standard textbook analysis, drivers as a group will be worse off with congestion charging if not compensated by revenues. This result is confirmed by an analysis of the Stockholm congestion charging scheme using a static model with homogeneous users. However, both this static model and the standard textbook analysis omit three important factors: taste heterogeneity, effects of charges on the larger network arising from less blocking back of upstream links and the possibility for drivers to reschedule. Taking account of these factors, using a dynamic scheduling model with heterogeneous users estimated and calibrated for Stockholm, we find that drivers as a group benefit from the charging scheme in Stockholm without recycling of revenues. This paper further investigates the importance of the three mentioned factors. We find that all three factors add significantly to the benefit of the charges and that the most important is heterogeneity in the value of travel time savings. This paper also provides an update on the consumer benefits of the Stockholm charges.
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| 38. |
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| 39. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Ett gigantiskt projekt med oklart syfte
- 2016
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Ingår i: Dagens nyheter. - : AB Dagens nyheter. - 1101-2447. ; :2016-01-04
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Tidskriftsartikel (populärvet., debatt m.m.)
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| 40. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Experiences from the Swedish Value of Time study
- 2012
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- We provide a synthesis of results and insights from the Swedish Value of Time study, with focus on what is relevant for transport appraisal and understanding travel behaviour. We summarize recent econometric advances, and show how these enable a better understanding and identification of the value of time distribution. The influence of the sign and size of changes is estimated and discussed, including the problems of loss aversion and the value of small time savings. Further, we show how the value of time depends on trip and traveller characteristics, discuss in what dimensions the value of time should be differentiated in appraisal, and provide recommended values for use in applied transport appraisal.
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| 41. |
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| 42. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Experiences from the Swedish Value of Time study
- 2014
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Ingår i: Transportation Research Part A. - : Elsevier BV. - 0965-8564 .- 1879-2375. ; 59, s. 144-158
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We provide a synthesis of results and insights from the Swedish Value of Time study, with focus on what is relevant for transport appraisal and understanding travel behavior. We summarize recent econometric advances, and show how these enable a better understanding and identification of the value of time distribution. The influence of the sign and size of changes is estimated and discussed, including the problems of loss aversion and the value of small time savings. Further, we show how the value of time depends on trip and traveler characteristics, discuss in what dimensions the value of time should be differentiated in appraisal, and provide recommended values for use in applied transport appraisal.
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| 43. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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Factors driving public support for road congestion reduction policies : Congestion charging, free public transport and more roads in Stockholm, Helsinki and Lyon
- 2015
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Ingår i: Transportation Research Part A. - : Elsevier BV. - 0965-8564 .- 1879-2375. ; 78, s. 452-462
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Based on an across-the-board survey conducted among residents of Stockholm, Helsinki and Lyon, we explore the opinions on three policy measures to combat road congestion: congestion charging, free public transport and building more roads. The support for the two latter policies is substantially higher than the support for congestion charging, which is only supported by a majority in Stockholm. Self-interest is important for the formation of the opinion to all three policies. However, fundamental values and general political views, indicated by four attitudinal factors, are even more important in forming opinions towards the three transport policies. Of all attitudinal factors, the one indicating environmental concern most influences the support for all policies. Equity concerns, however, increase the support for free public transport and opposition to taxation increases the support for building more roads. Our results further suggest that the opinions towards free public transport and building more roads can be mapped along the left right political axis, where Environment and Equity are to the left and Pricing and Taxation are to the right. However, the opinion towards congestion charging cuts right through the political spectrum. The impact of the fundamental values and self-interest variables are similar for Stockholm and Helsinki, indicating that even if experience increases the overall support for charging, it does not change the relative strength of different political arguments to any major extent.
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| 44. |
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| 45. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-
(författare)
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Forecasting demand for high speed rail
- 2014
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Ingår i: Transportation Research Part A. - : Elsevier BV. - 0965-8564 .- 1879-2375. ; 70, s. 81-92
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- It is sometimes argued that standard state-of-practice logit-based models cannot forecast the demand for substantially reduced travel times, for instance due to High Speed Rail (HSR). The present paper investigates this issue by reviewing the literature on travel time elasticities for long distance rail travel and comparing these with elasticities observed when new HSR lines have opened. This paper also validates the Swedish long distance model, Sampers, and its forecast demand for a proposed new HSR, using aggregate data revealing how the air-rail modal split varies with the difference in generalized travel time between rail and air. The Sampers long distance model is also compared to a newly developed model applying Box-Cox transformations. The paper contributes to the empirical literature on long distance travel, long distance elasticities and HSR passenger demand forecasts. Results indicate that the Sampers model is indeed able to predict the demand for HSR reasonably well. The new non-linear model has even better model fit and also slightly higher elasticities.
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| 46. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-
(författare)
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Forecasting demand for high speed rail
- 2012
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- It is sometimes argued that standard state-of-practice logit based models cannot forecast the demand for substantially reduced travel times, for instance due to High Speed Rail (HSR). The present paper investigates this issue by reviewing travel time elasticities for long-distance rail travel in the literature and comparing these with elasticities observed when new HSR lines have opened. This paper also validates the Swedish official long-distance model and its forecasted demand for a proposed new HSR track, using aggregate data revealing how the air-rail modal split varies with the difference in generalized travel time between rail and air. The official linear-in-parameters long-distance model is also compared to a model applying Box-Cox transformations. The paper contributes to the empirical literature on long-distance travel, long-distance elasticities and HSR passenger demand forecasts. Results indicate that the Swedish state-of-practice model, and similar models, is indeed able to predict the demand for a HSR reasonably well. The non-linear model, however, has better model fit and slightly higher elasticities.
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| 47. |
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| 48. |
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| 49. |
- Börjesson, Maria, 1974-, et al.
(författare)
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How rural is too rural for transit? : Optimal transit subsidies and supply in rural areas
- 2020
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Ingår i: Journal of Transport Geography. - : ELSEVIER SCI LTD. - 0966-6923 .- 1873-1236. ; 88
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- The optimal supply of rail and bus in low density areas is studied by calibrating a demand and supply model with three modes (car, bus and rail) to an existing low density corridor. Varying the length of the network, the frequencies and the size of the populations, allows to study the trade-off between the consumer surplus losses of the public transport users and the transit operation and maintenance costs savings. We find that for an existing rail network, the optimization of frequency is the prime source of welfare gains. The rail network is marginally beneficial in the sense that keeping the network is welfare improving as long as there is no major repair or replacement investment needed. When population in the smaller towns decreases strongly, it becomes welfare improving to close the existing rail network but a bus service remains beneficial for at least part of the network.
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| 50. |
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