| 1. |
- Engelmark Cassimjee, Karim
(author)
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Tools in biocatalysis : enzyme immobilisation on silica and synthesis of enantiopure amines
- 2010
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Licentiate thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- This thesis presents two techniques in the field of biocatalysis: An enzyme immobilisation method based on the His6-tag for attachment on modified silica oxide beads, and it’s employment in aqueous and organic medium for synthesis applications. The method functions as a one step extraction and immobilisation protocol. An equilibrium displacement system which enables complete conversion in reactions with ω-transaminases where isopropylamine is the donor, a route for synthesis of pharmaceutically interesting enantiopure amines. Biocatalysis is predicted to be a paramount technology for an environmentally sustainable chemical industry, to which every newly developed method represents a small but important step. The work done here is aimed to be a part of this development.
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| 2. |
- Berglund, Torkel, et al.
(author)
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Nicotinamide; antioxidative and DNA hypomethylation effects in plant cells
- 2017
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In: Plant physiology and biochemistry (Paris). - : Elsevier. - 0981-9428 .- 1873-2690. ; 118, s. 551-560
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The effects of nicotinamide (NIC) and its natural plant metabolites nicotinic acid (NIA) and trigonelline (TRIG) were studied with respect to defense in plant cell cultures. NIC and NIA could protect against oxidative stress damage caused by 2,2′-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH), which generates free radicals. Damage was analyzed as DNA strand breaks in cell cultures of Pisum sativum (garden pea), Daucus carota (carrot), Populus tremula L. × P. tremuloides (hybrid aspen) and Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar periwinkle), monitored by single cell gel electrophoresis (comet assay), and assays of cell leakage in C. roseus. The activities of aconitase and fumarase enzymes, which have key roles in energy metabolism, were analyzed in P. sativum cultures after treatment with NIC or NIA. Aconitase activity was increased by NIA, and fumarase activity was increased by both compounds. These compounds were shown to promote glutathione metabolism in P. sativum cultures, and NIC was shown to have a global DNA hypomethylating effect. Neither TRIG nor poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor 3-aminobenzamide offered any protection against DNA damage or cell leakage, nor did they promote aconitase or fumarase activities, or glutathione metabolism. By this broad approach addressing multiple biochemical factors and different plant species, we demonstrate that NIC and NIA protect plant cells from oxidative stress, and that NIC clearly exerts an epigenetic effect; decreased DNA methylation. This indicates that these compounds have important roles in the regulation of metabolism in plant cells, especially in connection to stress.
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| 3. |
- Berglund, Torkel, et al.
(author)
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Protection of spruce seedlings against pine weevil attacks by treatment of seeds or seedlings with nicotinamide, nicotinic acid and jasmonic acid
- 2016
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In: Forestry (London). - : Oxford University Press. - 0015-752X .- 1464-3626. ; 89:2, s. 127-135
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Sustainable methods are required to protect newly planted tree seedlings from insect herbivore attack. To this end, here Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seeds were treated with 2.5 mM nicotinamide (NIC), 2.5 mM nicotinic acid (NIA), 3 mM jasmonic acid (JA) or 0.2 mM 5-azacytidine (5-Aza), and 6-month-old seedlings grown from these seeds were planted at a reforestation area in central Sweden. Attack by pine weevils (Hylobius abietis) was reduced by 50 per cent by NIC treatment, 62.5 per cent by JA treatment and 25 per cent by 5-Aza treatment, when compared with seedlings grown from untreated seeds. Watering 18-month-old spruce seedlings with 2 mM NIC or 2 mM NIA did reduce attack during the first season in the field by 40 and 53 per cent, respectively, compared with untreated plants. Girdling was also reduced by the different treatments. Analysis of conifer seedlings treated with 5-Aza points at a possible involvement of epigenetic mechanisms in this defensive capacity. This is supported by a reduced level of DNA methylation in the needles of young spruce seedlings grown in a greenhouse from NIC-treated seeds. Seed treatment for seedling defense potentiation is simple, inexpensive and also a new approach for forestry with many potential applications.
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| 4. |
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| 5. |
- Christiernin, Maria, et al.
(author)
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Lignin isolated from primary walls of hybrid aspen cell cultures indicates significant differences in lignin structure between primary and secondary cell wall
- 2005
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In: Plant physiology and biochemistry (Paris). - : Elsevier BV. - 0981-9428 .- 1873-2690. ; 43:8, s. 777-785
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Hybrid aspen (Populus tremula x tremuloides) cell cultures were grown for 7, 14 and 21 days. The cell cultures formed primary cell walls but no secondary cell wall according to carbohydrate analysis and microscopic characterization. The primary walls were lignified, increasingly with age, according to Klason lignin analysis. Presence of lignin in the primary walls, with a higher content in 21-day old cells than in 7-day old cells, was further Supported by phloroglucinol/HCI reagent test and confocal microscopy after both immunolocalization and staining with acriflavin. Both laccase and peroxidase activity were found in the cultures and the activity increased during lignin formation. The lignin from the cell culture material was compared to lignin from mature aspen wood, where most of the lignin originates in the secondary cell wall, and which served as our secondary cell wall control. Lignin from the cell walls was isolated and characterized by thioacidolysis followed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. The lignin in the cell cultures differed from lignin of mature aspen wood in that it consisted exclusively of guaiacyl units, and had a more condensed structure. Five lignin structures were identified by mass spectrometry in the cell suspension cultures. The results indicate that the hybrid aspen cell culture used in this investigation may be a convenient experimental system for studies of primary cell wall lignin.
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| 6. |
- Colombani, A., et al.
(author)
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In vitro synthesis of (1→3)-β-D-glucan (callose) and cellulose by detergent extracts of membranes from cell suspension cultures of hybrid aspen
- 2004
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In: Cellulose. - 0969-0239 .- 1572-882X. ; 11:3-4, s. 313-327
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- The aim of this work was to optimize the conditions for in vitro synthesis of (1 --> 3)-beta-D-glucan (callose) and cellulose, using detergent extracts of membranes from hybrid aspen (Populus tremula x tremuloides) cells grown as suspension cultures. Callose was the only product synthesized when CHAPS extracts were used as a source of enzyme. The optimal reaction mixture for callose synthesis contained 100 mM Mops buffer pH 7.0, 1 mM UDP-glucose, 8 mM Ca2+, and 20 mM cellobiose. The use of digitonin to extract the membrane-bound proteins was required for cellulose synthesis. Yields as high as 50% of the total in vitro products were obtained when cells were harvested in the stationary phase of the growth curve, callose being the other product. The optimal mixture for cellulose synthesis consisted of 100 mM Mops buffer pH 7.0, 1 mM UDP-glucose, 1 mM Ca2+, 8 mM Mg2+, and 20 mM cellobiose. The in vitro beta-glucans were identified by hydrolysis of radioactive products, using specific enzymes. C-13-Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy were also used for callose characterization. The (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan systematically had a microfibrillar morphology, but the size and organization of the microfibrils were affected by the nature of the detergent used for enzyme extraction. The discussion of the results is included in a short review of the field that also compares the data obtained with those available in the literature. The results presented show that the hybrid aspen is a promising model for in vitro studies on callose and cellulose synthesis.
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| 7. |
- Gärdin, Anna, et al.
(author)
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T2 * relaxation time in Achilles tendinosis and controls and its correlation with clinical score
- 2016
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In: Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. - : Wiley. - 1053-1807 .- 1522-2586. ; 43:6, s. 1417-1422
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- PURPOSE: To investigate if the T2 * of Achilles tendons can discriminate between chronic Achilles tendinosis and healthy controls; to correlate with clinical score; to evaluate its short-term repeatability; and to estimate minimal detectable change.MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty patients, with chronic mid-portion Achilles tendinosis, and 10 controls without history of Achilles tendon symptoms, were examined with a 3T MR scanner with a 3D flash ultrashort time to echo sequence with five different echo times. The sequence was run twice to test repeatability. The tendon border was delineated on axial slices at three different levels in the calculated T2 * maps. The clinical severity of Achilles tendinosis was measured by a VISA-A questionnaire.RESULTS: There was a significant difference in mean T2 * between symptomatic and control tendons (P < 0.001). In patients with unilateral symptoms no significant difference in T2 * was found between symptomatic and contralateral asymptomatic tendons (P = 0.19). There was no significant correlation between clinical severity and T2 * (r = -0.28, P = 0.22). The short-term repeatability of T2 * showed a coefficient of variation of 18%, a least significant change of 50%, and the intraclass correlation coefficient had an average consistency of 0.99.CONCLUSION: T2 * may help to differentiate between chronic Achilles tendinosis and healthy controls but was not associated with the clinical score. However, and notably, the reproducibility of the method was low and the number of patients was small.
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| 8. |
- Kalbin, Georgi, et al.
(author)
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Ultraviolet-B-radiation-induced changes in nicotinamide and glutathione metabolism and gene expression in plants
- 1997
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In: European Journal of Biochemistry. - : Wiley. - 0014-2956 .- 1432-1033. ; 249:2, s. 465-472
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Pea (Pisum sativum L. cv. Greenfeast) plants were exposed to supplementary ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation (biologically effective dose rates normalised to 300 nm UV-B-BE,B-300: 0.18, 0.32 or 1.4 W m(-2)). Leaf nicotinamide, trigonelline, GSH(tot) (total glutathione) and (GSSG (oxidised glutathione) levels remained unchanged after exposure to the lowest dose rates. 1.4 W m(-2) UV-B-BE,B-300 gave rise to 60-fold and 4.5-fold increases in GSSG and GSH(tot), respectively. 3.5-fold and 9.5-fold increases were found in nicotinamide and trigonelline, respectively. cab (Chlorophyll-a/b-binding protein) transcript levels decreased and CHS (chalcone synthase) and PAL (phenylalanine ammonia-lyase) mRNA increased after shorter UV-B exposures (hours) to the higher dose rate of UV-B and after exposure to the intermediate dose rate. CHS and PAL mRNAs also increased after prolonged exposure to the lowest dose rate. cab transcripts completely disappeared. whereas CHS and PAL mRNA levels rose by 60-fold and 17-fold, respectively, after 12 h exposure at the highest dose rate and 12 h of development. Our results indicate that nicotinamide or trigonelline do not function as signalling compounds for CHS and PAL gene expression. Elevated nicotinamide and trigonelline levels occur in response to UV-B, but only at UV-B doses high enough to cause oxidative stress.
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| 9. |
- Laurell, Cecilia, et al.
(author)
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Transcriptome analysis shows nicotinamide seed treatment alters expression of genes involved in defense and epigenetic processes in roots of seedlings of Picea abies
- 2021
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In: Journal of Forestry Research. - : Springer Nature. - 1007-662X .- 1993-0607.
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Nicotinamide treatment of plants and plant cell cultures has been shown to promote defense and decrease levels of DNA methylation. In the present study, we used RNA-seq technology to study overall changes in gene expression induced in roots of 3-month-old spruce (Picea abies) seedlings grown from nicotinamide-treated seeds to examine the molecular mechanisms underlying the defense promotion. Approximately 350 genes were identi- fied as differentially expressed in roots after the seed treat- ment. Stress response genes, including transcription factors MYB77 and LHY and two chitinase enzymes, were gen- erally upregulated, whereas genes thought to be involved in epigenetic regulation such as DDM1, known to promote DNA methylation, were present at high frequency among the downregulated genes. Across all samples, the expression of downregulated epigenetic-related genes was highly cor- related with the nicotinamide treatment, indicating a com- mon regulation. Our results support an earlier hypothesis regarding a potential role of nicotinamide as a defense-signal mediator.
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| 10. |
- Ohlsson, Anna B., et al.
(author)
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Cell suspension cultures of Populus tremula x P. tremuloides exhibit a high level of cellulose synthase gene expression that coincides with increased in vitro cellulose synthase activity.
- 2006
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In: Protoplasma. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0033-183X .- 1615-6102. ; 228:4, s. 221-9
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Compared to wood, cell suspension cultures provide convenient model systems to study many different cellular processes in plants. Here we have established cell suspension cultures of Populus tremula L. x P. tremuloides Michx. and characterized them by determining the enzymatic activities and/or mRNA expression levels of selected cell wall-specific proteins at the different stages of growth. While enzymes and proteins typically associated with primary cell wall synthesis and expansion were detected in the exponential growth phase of the cultures, the late stationary phase showed high expression of the secondary-cell-wall-associated cellulose synthase genes. Interestingly, detergent extracts of membranes from aging cell suspension cultures exhibited high levels of in vitro cellulose synthesis. The estimated ratio of cellulose to callose was as high as 50 : 50, as opposed to the ratio of 30 : 70 so far achieved with membrane preparations extracted from other systems. The increased cellulose synthase activity was also evidenced by higher levels of Calcofluor white binding in the cell material from the stationary-phase cultures. The ease of handling cell suspension cultures and the improved capacity for in vitro cellulose synthesis suggest that these cultures offer a new basis for studying the mechanism of cellulose biosynthesis.
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| 11. |
- Ohlsson, Anna B., et al.
(author)
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Gibberellic acid-induced changes in glutathione metabolism and anthocyanin content in plant tissue
- 2001
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In: Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture. - 0167-6857 .- 1573-5044. ; 64:1, s. 77-80
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Literature data point to a possible link between gibberellic acid (GA(3)) and glutathione metabolism in plant tissue, as both are connected to dormancy breakage. In order to study the influence of GA(3) on glutathione metabolism, we treated an anthocyanin accumulating cell culture of periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) and a shoot differentiated culture of pea (Pisum sativum) with GA(3). Glutathione reductase (GR; E.C. 1.6.4.2) activity increased to 135% and 190% of the control in C. roseus and P. sativum, respectively. The level of oxidized glutathione (GSSG) decreased to 60% of the control in the C. resells culture while no change in GSSG was observed in the P. sativum culture. No changes in the tissue concentration of total glutathione was observed in the cultures after GA(3) treatment. Concomitant. to the changes in GSSG and GR, an increase in anthocyanin accumulation was observed in the C. roseus culture in association with a strong increase in phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL; E.C. 4.3.1.5) activity in response to GA(3). These data strongly suggest a link between GA(3) and glutathione metabolism.
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| 12. |
- Ohlsson, Anna B., et al.
(author)
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Increased metal tolerance in Salix by nicotinamide and nicotinic acid
- 2008
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In: Plant physiology and biochemistry (Paris). - : Elsevier BV. - 0981-9428 .- 1873-2690. ; 46:7, s. 655-664
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- We have earlier shown that nicotinamide (NIC) and nicotinic acid (NiA) can induce defence-related metabolism in plant cells; e.g. increase the level of glutathione. Here we investigated if NIC and NiA could increase the metal tolerance in metal sensitive clones of Salix viminalis and whether this would be mediated via increased glutathione level. Salix clones, sensitive or tolerant to zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and cadmium (Cd) were grown in the presence of heavy metals (Cd, Cu or Zn) or NIC and NiA as well as in combination. In addition, the influence of N-acetyl-cystein (NAC) and L-2-oxothiazolidine 4-carboxylate (OTC), stimulators of reduced glutathione (GSH) biosynthesis, and the glutathione biosynthesis inhibitor buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) was analysed. Tolerance was measured as effects on root and shoot dry weight, and the glutathione and metal concentrations in the tissues were analysed. Results showed that NIC and NiA decreased the toxic effects of Cd, Cu and Zn on growth significantly in sensitive clones, but also to some extent in tolerant clones. However, the glutathione level and metal concentration did not change by NIC or NiA addition. Treatment with NAC, OTC or BSO did not per se influence the sensitivity to Cd, although the glutathione level increased in the presence of NAC and OTC and decreased in response to BSO. The results suggest that NIC and NiA increased the defence against heavy metals but not via glutathione formation per se.
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| 13. |
- Ohlsson, Anna B., et al.
(author)
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UV-B Exposure of Indoor-Grown Picea abies Seedlings Causes an Epigenetic Effect and Selective Emission of Terpenes
- 2013
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In: Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C - A Journal of Biosciences. - Tübingen : Verlag der Zeitschrift für Naturforschung. - 0939-5075 .- 1865-7125. ; 68:3-4, s. 139-147
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Terpenoids are involved in various defensive functions in plants, especially conifers. Epigenetic mechanisms, for example DNA methylation, can influence plant defence systems. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the influence of UV-B exposure on the release of terpenoids from spruce seedlings and on needle DNA methylation. Ten-week-old seedlings grown indoors were exposed to UV-B radiation during 4 h, and the volatile compounds emitted from the seedlings were analysed. Analysis of the volatiles 1, 3, and 22 d after this UV-B exposure showed that bornyl acetate, borneol, myrcene, and limonene contents increased during the first 3 days, while at day 22 the level of emission had returned to the control level. UV-B exposure decreased the level of DNA methylation in needles of young seedlings, reflected in methylation changes in CCGG sequences. Exposure of young seedlings to UV-B radiation might be a way to potentiate the general defensive capacity, improving their ability to survive in outdoor conditions. UV-B-induced defence is discussed in the light of epigenetic mechanisms.
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| 14. |
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| 15. |
- Pettersson, Marie, 1978-
(author)
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Stress Related Emissions of Norway Spruce Plants
- 2007
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Licentiate thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- The interactions between plants and insects are mediated by volatile molecules. Plants respond to stress by biosynthesis of chemical substances which can deter invading insects or pathogens. Some of these substances are volatile and are emitted to the surroundings and may attract or repel insects. Information about the susceptibility of individual plants to infestation, their volatile emissions and chemical defence is of interest, for example in selecting plants for tree breeding programs. This research was focused on finding volatile chemical markers of resistance in Norway spruce plants that do influence insects associated to conifers. Collection of headspace volatiles by SPME followed by separation and identification with GC-MS is effective in investigating biological systems with a minimum of disturbance. This method has here been used to investigate Norway spruce plants of different ages and stress conditions as well as trapping semiochemicals like nepetalactone emitted by the spruce shoot aphids. It was even possible to analyse the emission of single needles in vivo and obtain a chemical pattern of the site of the stress reaction. Seedlings of different ages showed differences in chemical composition of emitted volatiles, with the pine weevil repellent (S)-(-)-limonene as one of the main compounds. Wounded phloem of conventional plants emitted high amounts of monoterpenes while the phloem of mini plants emitted (3Z)-hexenal and (3Z)-hexen-1-ol. Norway spruce plants did respond to different stress elicitors with similar response, regardless of their genetic origin. The emissions from stressed Norway spruce plants mainly consist of (E)-β-farnesene, (E,E)-α-farnesene, (E)-α-bisabolene, (R)-(-)-linalool and methyl salicylate. Emissions from live spruce shoot aphids were detected during autumn periods, and a method to separate and identify the four diastereomers of nepetalactone by GC-MS and characteristic m/z-fragments was accomplished.
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| 16. |
- Poborilova, Zuzana, et al.
(author)
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DNA hypomethylation concomitant with the overproduction of ROS induced by naphthoquinone juglone on tobacco BY-2 suspension cells
- 2015
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In: Environmental and Experimental Botany. - : Elsevier BV. - 0098-8472 .- 1873-7307. ; 113, s. 28-39
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Juglone, 5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, is a naturally occurring plant secondary metabolite with allelopathic and cytotoxic properties. The cytotoxic effect of juglone and changes at the level of DNA methylation were investigated on a plant cell model, tobacco BY-2 cell suspension culture. We found that juglone in a concentration-dependent manner inhibits cell growth and causes creation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that were visible mainly in nucleus, nucleolus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane. Analysis of the changes in DNA methylation level using Luminometric Methylation Assay showed that juglone at the concentrations of 60 and 80 mu m causes hypomethylation of DNA. Decrease in DNA methylation was confirmed by the more sensitive technique, confocal immunofluorescence microscopy, already at 30 mu m, and was accompanied by significant overproduction of hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, and superoxide anion radicals. The highest percentage of the signs of programed cell death, especially apoptic-like bodies that indicate DNA fragmentation was observed at 30 mu m of juglone. On the basis of results we suggest that overproduction of ROS is the main mechanism that causes hypomethylation of DNA, which may contribute to the initiation of the programmed cell death.
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| 17. |
- Poborilova, Zuzana, et al.
(author)
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DNA methylation changes caused by lawsone
- 2014
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In: International Journal of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering. - 2319-3913. ; 8:7, s. 654-657
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)
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| 18. |
- Wang, Yang
(author)
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Exploring glycoside hydrolase family 5 (GH5) enzymes
- 2013
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Licentiate thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- In 1990, the classification of carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) was introduced by the scientist Bernard Henrissat. According to sequence similarity, these enzymes were separated into families with conserved structures and reaction mechanisms. One interesting class of CAZymes is the group of glycoside hydrolases (GHs) containing more than 138000 modules divided into 131 families as of February 2013. One of the most versatile and the largest of these GH families, containing enzymes with numerous biomass-deconstructing activities, is glycoside hydrolase family 5 (GH5). However, for large and diverse families like the GH5 family, another layer of classification is required to get a better understanding of the evolution of diverse enzyme activities. In Paper I, a new subfamily classification of GH5 is presented in order to sort the family members into distinct groups with predictive power. In total, 51 subfamilies were defined. Despite the fact that several hundred GH5 enzymes have been characterized, 20 subfamilies lacking biochemically characterized enzymes and 38 subfamilies without structural data were identified. These highlighted subfamilies contain interesting targets for future investigation.The GH5 family includes endo-β-mannanases catalyzing the hydrolysis of the β-1,4-linked backbone of mannan polysaccharides, which are common hemicelluloses found as storage and structural polymers in plant cell walls. Mannans are commonly utilized as raw biomaterials in food, feed, paper, textile and cosmetic industries, and mannanases are often applied for modifying and controlling the property of mannan polysaccharides in such applications. The overwhelming majority of characterized mannanases are from microbial origin. The situation for plant mannanases is quite different, as the catalytic properties for only a handful have been determined. Paper II describes the first characterization of a heterologously expressed Arabidopsis β-mannanase.
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| 19. |
- Wang, Yi-Qiang, et al.
(author)
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Analysis of expressed sequence tags from Ginkgo mature foliage in China
- 2010
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In: TREE GENET GENOMES. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1614-2942 .- 1614-2950. ; 6:3, s. 357-365
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Ginkgo biloba L. is a tree native to China, which has large importance within medicine and horticulture. The extracts from Ginkgo mature leaves with rich flavonoids and terpenoids are commonly used for a variety of folk remedies. We constructed a cDNA library derived from mature leaves of Ginkgo, which consisted of 8.12 x 10(5) clones with the insert length of 500-2,000 bp. We performed an analysis of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and obtained partial sequences from 2,039 clones, which represented 1,437 unigenes consisting of 249 contigs and 1,188 singletons. The 2,039 ESTs were submitted to GenBank (dbEST) at NCBI and were assigned GenBank accession numbers from GE647881 to GE649919. The 1,235 cDNA clones out of 2,039 (60.1%) were assigned putative functions, and the remaining 804 clones were not similar to any known gene sequences in the databases. The five largest categories of Ginkgo clones were: "energy" (19.4%), "disease/defense" (16%), "metabolism" (11.3%), "unclassified proteins" (12.5%), and "secondary metabolism" (9%). The highly expressed transcripts in the cDNA library were some genes related to photosynthesis, disease/defense, and flavonoid biosynthesis, including ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase small-chain gene, pathogenesis-related protein gene, light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b binding protein of photosystem gene, catalase gene, and phenylcoumaran benzylic ether reductase gene et al. Many genes with ESTs similar to photosynthesis, secondary metabolism, and stress-response genes were characterized. The analysis of ESTs indicates that it is a useful approach for isolating Ginkgo genes homologous to known genes. Our results provide new information about mature leaf-specific transcripts of Ginkgo.
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