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1.
  • Klionsky, Daniel J., et al. (författare)
  • Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy
  • 2012
  • Ingår i: Autophagy. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1554-8635 .- 1554-8627. ; 8:4, s. 445-544
  • Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
    • In 2008 we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, research on this topic has continued to accelerate, and many new scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Accordingly, it is important to update these guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Various reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose. Nevertheless, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. A key point that needs to be emphasized is that there is a difference between measurements that monitor the numbers or volume of autophagic elements (e.g., autophagosomes or autolysosomes) at any stage of the autophagic process vs. those that measure flux through the autophagy pathway (i.e., the complete process); thus, a block in macroautophagy that results in autophagosome accumulation needs to be differentiated from stimuli that result in increased autophagic activity, defined as increased autophagy induction coupled with increased delivery to, and degradation within, lysosomes (in most higher eukaryotes and some protists such as Dictyostelium) or the vacuole (in plants and fungi). In other words, it is especially important that investigators new to the field understand that the appearance of more autophagosomes does not necessarily equate with more autophagy. In fact, in many cases, autophagosomes accumulate because of a block in trafficking to lysosomes without a concomitant change in autophagosome biogenesis, whereas an increase in autolysosomes may reflect a reduction in degradative activity. Here, we present a set of guidelines for the selection and interpretation of methods for use by investigators who aim to examine macroautophagy and related processes, as well as for reviewers who need to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of papers that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a formulaic set of rules, because the appropriate assays depend in part on the question being asked and the system being used. In addition, we emphasize that no individual assay is guaranteed to be the most appropriate one in every situation, and we strongly recommend the use of multiple assays to monitor autophagy. In these guidelines, we consider these various methods of assessing autophagy and what information can, or cannot, be obtained from them. Finally, by discussing the merits and limits of particular autophagy assays, we hope to encourage technical innovation in the field.
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2.
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3.
  • Bogaerts, W., et al. (författare)
  • Low-Power Electro-Optic Actuators for Large-Scale Programmable Photonic Circuits
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: 2021 Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, CLEO 2021 - Proceedings. - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc..
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Photonic integrated circuits are becoming increasingly more complex, especially with the emergence of programmable photonic circuits. These require many tunable photonic elements, such as electro-optic phase shifters and tunable couplers. We will discuss our progress in compact, low-power silicon photonics actuators based on heaters, liquid crystal and MEMS that can be scaled up to large circuits. 
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4.
  • Bogaerts, Wim, et al. (författare)
  • MORPHIC : Programmable Photonic Circuits enabled by Silicon Photonic MEMS
  • 2020
  • Ingår i: Proceedings Volume 11285 SPIE OPTO - 1-6 February 2020 Silicon Photonics XV. - : SPIE-Intl Soc Optical Eng.
  • Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • In the European project MORPHIC we develop a platform for programmable silicon photonic circuits enabled by waveguide-integrated micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS). MEMS can add compact, and low-power phase shifters and couplers to an established silicon photonics platform with high-speed modulators and detectors. This MEMS technology is used for a new class of programmable photonic circuits, that can be reconfigured using electronics and software, consisting of large interconnected meshes of phase shifters and couplers. MORPHIC is also developing the packaging and driver electronics interfacing schemes for such large circuits, creating a supply chain for rapid prototyping new photonic chip concepts. These will be demonstrated in different applications, such as switching, beamforming and microwave photonics.
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5.
  • Bogaerts, Wim, et al. (författare)
  • Programmable Photonic Circuits powered by Silicon Photonic MEMS Technology
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: Photonic Networks and Devices, Networks 2022. - : Optica Publishing Group (formerly OSA).
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Programmable photonic chips allow flexible reconfiguration of on-chip optical connections, controlled through electronics and software. We will present the recent progress of such complex photonic circuits powered by silicon photonic MEMS actuators.
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6.
  • Bogaerts, W., et al. (författare)
  • Programmable photonic circuits using silicon photonic MEMS
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: Optics InfoBase Conference Papers. - : The Optical Society.
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • We present a silicon photonics technology extended with low-power MEMS scalable to large circuits. This enables us to make photonic waveguide meshes that can be reconfigured using electronics and software.
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7.
  • Bogaerts, Wim, et al. (författare)
  • Programmable silicon photonic circuits powered by MEMS
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering. - : SPIE-Intl Soc Optical Eng.
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • We present our work to extend silicon photonics with MEMS actuators to enable low-power, large scale programmable photonic circuits. For this, we start from the existing iSiPP50G silicon photonics platform of IMEC, where we add free-standing movable waveguides using a few post-processing steps. This allows us to implement phase shifters and tunable couplers using electrostatically actuated MEMS, while at the same time maintaining all the original functionality of the silicon photonics platform. The MEMS devices are protected using a wafer-level sealing approach and interfaced with custom multi-channel driver and readout electronics.
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8.
  • Bogaerts, Wim, et al. (författare)
  • Scaling programmable silicon photonics circuits
  • 2023
  • Ingår i: Silicon Photonics XVIII. - : SPIE-Intl Soc Optical Eng.
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • We give an overview the progress of our work in silicon photonic programmable circuits, covering the techn stack from the photonic chip over the driver electronics, packaging technologies all the way to the sof layers. On the photonic side, we show our recent results in large-scale silicon photonic circuits with diff tuning technologies, including heaters, MEMS and liquid crystals, and their respective electronic driving sch We look into the scaling potential of these different technologies as the number of tunable elements in a ci increases. Finally, we elaborate on the software routines for routing and filter synthesis to enable the pho programmer.
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9.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • A Bistable Silicon Photonic Mems Phase Switch For Nonvolatile Photonic Circuits
  • 2022
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Silicon photonic circuits are rapidly growing in complexity and spreading to new applications. However, programmable circuits consume much power and require active electrical interfaces. For the first time, we demonstrate a nonvolatile photonic MEMS π-phase switch using dual comb-drive actuation and adhesion forces, implemented in a silicon photonics foundry. Both nonvolatile states are low-loss, display low dispersion, could be cycled through over 100 times, and have retention times over 12 hours. We believe that the demonstrated nonvolatility combined with excellent optical performance can enable a new generation of programmable photonic chips that do not consume any electrical power once (re)configured.
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10.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • A MEMS tunable phase monitor with integrated photodiode read-out for silicon photonic circuits
  • 2023
  • Ingår i: Integrated Photonics Research, Silicon and Nanophotonics in Proceedings Advanced Photonics Congress 2023 - Part of Advanced Photonics Congress 2023. - : Optica Publishing Group.
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Electrostatic MEMS provide low power consumption to programmable photonics. However, the scaling of programmable photonics also requires solutions for circuit monitoring. We demonstrate a MEMS tunable phase monitor with integrated read-out on a foundry platform.
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11.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • A vacuum-sealed silicon photonic MEMS tunable ring resonator with independent control over coupling and phase
  • Annan publikation (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • Ring resonators are a vital element for designing filters, optical delay lines, or sensors in silicon photonics. However, reconfigurable ring resonators with low-power consumption and good optical performance are not available in foundries today. We demonstrate an add-drop ring resonator with the independent tuning of coupling and round-trip phase using low-power microelectromechanical (MEMS) actuation. The MEMS rings are individually vacuum-sealed on wafer scale, enabling reliable long-term operation with low damping. On resonance, we demonstrate a modulation increase of up to 15 dB, with a voltage bias of 4V and a peak drive amplitude as low as 20mV.
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12.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • Add-drop silicon ring resonator with low-power MEMS tuning of phase and coupling
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: 2022 Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, CLEO 2022. - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc..
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Applications of silicon photonics range from sensing to microwave processing. However, low-power active filters with long FSRs are lacking. We demonstrate an add-drop ring filter with 4 nm FSR and nW-level MEMS tuning of phase and coupling.
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13.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • An Integrated Platform for Cavity Optomechanics with Vacuum-Sealed Silicon Photonic MEMS
  • 2023
  • Ingår i: 2023 22nd International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems, Transducers 2023. - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc.. ; , s. 425-428
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Silicon photonics is an excellent platform for integrated cavity optomechanics due to silicon's high light confinement and favorable mechanical properties. However, optomechanical devices require a vacuum environment to inhibit damping due to air.We present an integrated platform for cavity optomechanics using thermo-compression bonding of silicon caps to provide on-chip vacuum sealing. We demonstrate optomechanical coupling in a vacuum-sealed ring resonator implemented on the platform, either by modulation of the laser power or by using an electrostatic phase shifter in the ring.By enabling optomechanics on a standard platform, we aim to make the technology available to a wider user base.
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14.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • Compact low loss MEMS phase shifters for scalable field-programmable silicon photonics
  • 2020
  • Ingår i: Optics InfoBase Conference Papers. - : The Optical Society.
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • MEMS offer low power tunability to silicon photonics. However, reported phase shifters lack in range, IL, or linearity. We show π linear phase shift in compact, 0.2 dB-IL MEMS devices, and demonstrate trade-offs for scalability.
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15.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • Low-loss MEMS phase shifter for large scale reconfigurable silicon photonics
  • 2019
  • Ingår i: 2019 IEEE 32nd international conference on micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS). - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). - 9781728116105 ; , s. 919-921
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • We experimentally demonstrate a silicon MEMS phase shifter achieving more than π phase shift with sub-dB insertion loss (IL).  The phase is tuned by reducing the gap between a static suspended waveguide and a free silicon beam, via comb-drive actuation.  Our device reaches 1.2π phase shift at only 20 V, with only 0.3 dB insertion loss – an order of magnitude improvement over previously reported MEMS devices.  The device has a small footprint of 50×70 µm2 and its power consumption is 5 orders of magnitude lower than that of traditional thermal phase shifters.  Our new phase shifter is a fundamental building block of the next-generation large scale reconfigurable photonic circuits which will find applications in datacenter interconnects, artificial intelligence (AI), and quantum computing.
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16.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • Reducing Actuation Nonlinearity of MEMS Phase Shifters for Reconfigurable Photonic Circuits
  • 2019
  • Ingår i: 2019 CONFERENCE ON LASERS AND ELECTRO-OPTICS (CLEO). - : IEEE. - 9781943580576
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The low power consumption of MEMS actuators enables large-scale reconfigurable photonic circuits. However, insertion loss and actuation linearity need improvement. By simulations and experiments, we analyze the dominating design parameters affecting linearity and suggest improvements.
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17.
  • Edinger, Pierre (författare)
  • Silicon photonic MEMS building blocks for low-power programmable circuits
  • 2022
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • Silicon photonics, or the confinement and control of light in integrated silicon waveguides, has rapidly grown from research labs to high-end chips for telecommunications. With the associated improvements in waveguide performance, the technology is promising for a wide range of new applications, from computing to sensing. However, current chip implementations of such applications are limited in scale. The available actuators used to control the circuits do not have the performance needed as building blocks for large circuits requiring thousands of actuators.Today’s silicon photonic circuits rely mainly on heaters and the thermo-optic effect for actuation. It enables the monolithic integration of reconfigurable building blocks in silicon photonic foundries with low optical losses and relatively short optical lengths. However, such heater-based building blocks consume over 1mW per device. Opto-electronic actuators are also available in silicon photonic foundries for high-speed modulation but are lossy and long.Micromechanical actuators for silicon photonics could provide the missing technology for scaling photonic circuits. Silicon is a material with excellent mechanical properties, and MEMS actuators can therefore be designed on the same layers used for waveguides. Electrostatic MEMS actuators consume very low power (<1nW static leakage per device), can achieve optical losses on par with state-of-the-art thermo-optic devices, within shorter optical lengths, and have response times in the μs range. However, such actuators require the partial suspension of silicon structures for movement, which is not currently available in silicon photonic foundries and presents additional challenges for commercial packaging.This thesis aims to bring large-scale photonic circuits closer to reality by integrating low-power and scalable silicon photonic MEMSactuators in a silicon photonics foundry platform. MEMS-based building blocks with scalable optical performance were developed and included in photonic circuits. The devices and circuits were implemented on a silicon photonics foundry platform (IMEC’s iSiPP50G)with a few foundry-compatible post-processing steps. Finally, a solution for wafer-level sealing of the MEMS actuators was developed, compatible with subsequent packaging and enhancing the mechanical performance of the devices.
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18.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • Silicon photonic MEMS phase shifter with mu s time constant built on a foundry platform
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: 2021 Conference On Lasers And Electro-Optics (CLEO). - : IEEE.
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • MEMS enable low power tuners in silicon photonics, but existing phase shifters lack in range, speed, and loss. We implement a 2 pi phase shifter with a 1.54 mu s time constant and 0.5 dB insertion loss in IMEC's iSiPP5OG platform.
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19.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • Silicon photonic MEMS phase shifter with µs time constant built on a foundry platform
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: Optics InfoBase Conference Papers. - : The Optical Society.
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • MEMS enable low power tuners in silicon photonics, but existing phase shifters lack in range, speed, and loss. We implement a 2π phase shifter with a 1.54 µs time constant and 0.5 dB insertion loss in IMEC's iSiPP50G platform.
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20.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • Silicon photonic microelectromechanical phase shifters for scalable programmable photonics
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: Optics Letters. - : OSA. - 0146-9592 .- 1539-4794. ; 46:22, s. 5671-5674
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Programmable photonic integrated circuits are emerging as an attractive platform for applications such as quantum information processing and artificial neural networks. However, current programmable circuits are limited in scalability by the lack of low-power and low-loss phase shifters in commercial foundries. Here, we demonstrate a compact phase shifter with low-power photonic microelectromechanical system (MEMS) actuation on a silicon photonics foundry platform (IMEC’s iSiPP50G). The device attains (2.9π±π) phase shift at 1550 nm, with an insertion loss of (0.33\textminus0.10$+$0.15)dB, a Vπ of (10.7\textminus1.4$+$2.2)V, and an Lπ of (17.2\textminus4.3$+$8.8)µm. We also measured an actuation bandwidth f\textminus3dB of 1.03 MHz in air. We believe that our demonstration of a low-loss and low-power photonic MEMS phase shifter implemented in silicon photonics foundry compatible technology lifts a main roadblock toward the scale-up of programmable photonic integrated circuits.
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21.
  • Edinger, Pierre, et al. (författare)
  • Vacuum-sealed silicon photonic MEMS tunable ring resonator with an independent control over coupling and phase
  • 2023
  • Ingår i: Optics Express. - : Optica Publishing Group. - 1094-4087. ; 31:4, s. 6540-6551
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Ring resonators are a vital element for filters, optical delay lines, or sensors in silicon photonics. However, reconfigurable ring resonators with low-power consumption are not available in foundries today. We demonstrate an add-drop ring resonator with the independent tuning of round-trip phase and coupling using low-power microelectromechanical (MEMS) actuation. At a wavelength of 1540 nm and for a maximum voltage of 40 V, the phase shifters provide a resonance wavelength tuning of 0.15 nm, while the tunable couplers can tune the optical resonance extinction ratio at the through port from 0 to 30 dB. The optical resonance displays a passive quality factor of 29 000, which can be increased to almost 50 000 with actuation. The MEMS rings are individually vacuum-sealed on wafer scale, enabling reliable and long-term protection from the environment. We cycled the mechanical actuators for more than 4 x 109 cycles at 100 kHz, and did not observe degradation in their response curves. On mechanical resonance, we demonstrate a modulation increase of up to 15 dB, with a voltage bias of 4 V and a peak drive amplitude as low as 20 mV.
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22.
  • Errando-Herranz, Carlos, 1989-, et al. (författare)
  • Dynamic dispersion tuning of silicon photonicwaveguides by microelectromechanical actuation
  • 2017
  • Ingår i: Optics InfoBase Conference Papers. - : Optical Society of America. - 9781943580279
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Efficient nonlinear silicon photonics rely on phase-matching through finewaveguide dispersion engineering. We experimentally demonstrate dynamic dispersion tuningof 800 ps/nm/km in a silicon waveguide ring resonator, by using microelectromechanicalactuation of an adjacent suspended waveguide rim.
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23.
  • Errando-Herranz, Carlos, 1989-, et al. (författare)
  • MEMS for Photonic Integrated Circuits
  • 2020
  • Ingår i: IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics. - : IEEE Press. - 1077-260X .- 1558-4542. ; 26:2, s. 1-16
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The field of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) for photonic integrated circuits (PICs) is reviewed. This field leverages mechanics at the nanometer to micrometer scale to improve existing components and introduce novel functionalities in PICs. This review covers the MEMS actuation principles and the mechanical tuning mechanisms for integrated photonics. The state of the art of MEMS tunable components in PICs is quantitatively reviewed and critically assessed with respect to suitability for large-scale integration in existing PIC technology platforms. MEMS provide a powerful approach to overcome current limitations in PIC technologies and to enable a new design dimension with a wide range of applications.
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24.
  • Errando-Herranz, Carlos, 1989-, et al. (författare)
  • New dynamic silicon photonic components enabled by MEMS technology
  • 2018
  • Ingår i: Proceedings Volume 10537, Silicon Photonics XIII. - : SPIE - International Society for Optical Engineering. - 9781510615595
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Silicon photonics is the study and application of integrated optical systems which use silicon as an optical medium, usually by confining light in optical waveguides etched into the surface of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers. The term microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) refers to the technology of mechanics on the microscale actuated by electrostatic actuators. Due to the low power requirements of electrostatic actuation, MEMS components are very power efficient, making them well suited for dense integration and mobile operation. MEMS components are conventionally also implemented in silicon, and MEMS sensors such as accelerometers, gyros, and microphones are now standard in every smartphone. By combining these two successful technologies, new active photonic components with extremely low power consumption can be made. We discuss our recent experimental work on tunable filters, tunable fiber-to-chip couplers, and dynamic waveguide dispersion tuning, enabled by the marriage of silicon MEMS and silicon photonics.
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25.
  • Huang, Po-Han, et al. (författare)
  • Three-dimensional printing of silica glass with sub-micrometer resolution
  • 2023
  • Ingår i: Nature Communications. - : Springer Nature. - 2041-1723. ; 14:1
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Silica glass is a high-performance material used in many applications such as lenses, glassware, and fibers. However, modern additive manufacturing of micro-scale silica glass structures requires sintering of 3D-printed silica-nanoparticle-loaded composites at similar to 1200 degrees C, which causes substantial structural shrinkage and limits the choice of substrate materials. Here, 3D printing of solid silica glass with sub-micrometer resolution is demonstrated without the need of a sintering step. This is achieved by locally crosslinking hydrogen silsesquioxane to silica glass using nonlinear absorption of sub-picosecond laser pulses. The as-printed glass is optically transparent but shows a high ratio of 4-membered silicon-oxygen rings and photoluminescence. Optional annealing at 900 degrees C makes the glass indistinguishable from fused silica. The utility of the approach is demonstrated by 3D printing an optical microtoroid resonator, a luminescence source, and a suspended plate on an optical-fiber tip. This approach enables promising applications in fields such as photonics, medicine, and quantum-optics.
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26.
  • Jo, Gaehun, 1992-, et al. (författare)
  • Wafer-level Hermetic Sealing of Silicon Photonic MEMS by Direct Metal-to-Metal Bonding
  • 2022
  • Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • The field of silicon (Si) photonic micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) for photonic integrated circuits (PICs) has evolved rapidly. Thanks to the ultra-low power consumption of Si photonic MEMS, it enables a wide range of high-performance photonic devices such as integrated optical MEMS phase shifters, tunable couplers and switches. However, photonic MEMS have suspended and movable parts which need to be protected from environmental influences, such as exposure to dust and humidity. Therefore, a packaging solution is needed for reliable operation over long periods. Here, we demonstrate wafer-level vacuum sealing of Si photonic MEMS inside cavities with ultra-thin Si caps.
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27.
  • Jo, Gaehun, 1992-, et al. (författare)
  • Wafer-level hermetically sealed silicon photonic MEMS
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: Photonics Research. - : Optical Society of America. - 2327-9125. ; 10:2, s. A14-A21
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The emerging fields of silicon (Si) photonic micro–electromechanical systems (MEMS) and optomechanics enable a wide range of novel high-performance photonic devices with ultra-low power consumption, such as integrated optical MEMS phase shifters, tunable couplers, switches, and optomechanical resonators. In contrast to conventional SiO2-clad Si photonics, photonic MEMS and optomechanics have suspended and movable parts that need to be protected from environmental influence and contamination during operation. Wafer-level hermetic sealing can be a cost-efficient solution, but Si photonic MEMS that are hermetically sealed inside cavities with optical and electrical feedthroughs have not been demonstrated to date, to our knowledge. Here, we demonstrate wafer-level vacuum sealing of Si photonic MEMS inside cavities with ultra-thin caps featuring optical and electrical feedthroughs that connect the photonic MEMS on the inside to optical grating couplers and electrical bond pads on the outside. We used Si photonic MEMS devices built on foundry wafers from the iSiPP50G Si photonics platform of IMEC, Belgium. Vacuum confinement inside the sealed cavities was confirmed by an observed increase of the cutoff frequency of the electro-mechanical response of the encapsulated photonic MEMS phase shifters, due to reduction of air damping. The sealing caps are extremely thin, have a small footprint, and are compatible with subsequent flip-chip bonding onto interposers or printed circuit boards. Thus, our approach for sealing of integrated Si photonic MEMS clears a significant hurdle for their application in high-performance Si photonic circuits.
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28.
  • Jo, Gaehun, 1992-, et al. (författare)
  • Wafer-Level Vacuum Sealing for Packaging of Silicon Photonic MEMS
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: Proceedings SPIE OPTO 6-12 march 2021 silicon photonics XVI. - : SPIE-Intl Soc Optical Eng.
  • Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • Silicon (Si) photonic micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), with its low-power phase shifters and tunable couplers, is emerging as a promising technology for large-scale reconfigurable photonics with potential applications for example in photonic accelerators for artificial intelligence (AI) workloads. For silicon photonic MEMS devices, hermetic/vacuum packaging is crucial to the performance and longevity, and to protect the photonic devices from contamination. Here, we demonstrate a wafer-level vacuum packaging approach to hermetically seal Si photonic MEMS wafers produced in the iSiPP50G Si photonics foundry platform of IMEC. The packaging approach consists of transfer bonding and sealing the silicon photonic MEMS devices with 30 µm-thick Si caps, which were prefabricated on a 100 mm-diameter silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer. The packaging process achieved successful wafer-scale vacuum sealing of various photonic devices. The functionality of photonic MEMS after the hermetic/vacuum packaging was confirmed. Thus, the demonstrated thin Si cap packaging shows the possibility of a novel vacuum sealing method for MEMS integrated in standard Si photonics platforms.
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29.
  • Khan, U., et al. (författare)
  • Large scale programmable photonic circuits using silicon photonic MEMS
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: 2022 Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, CLEO 2022. - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc..
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • We demonstrate low-power and non-volatile MEMS actuators on an industrially established silicon photonics platform. The compact electrostatically actuated phase shifters and tunable couplers enable large-scale programmable photonic integrated circuits. 
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30.
  • Khan, Umar, et al. (författare)
  • Low power actuators for programmable photonic processors
  • 2023
  • Ingår i: AI and Optical Data Sciences IV. - : SPIE-Intl Soc Optical Eng.
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The demand for efficient actuators in photonics has peaked with increasing popularity for large-scale general-purpose programmable photonics circuits. We present our work to enhance an established silicon photonics platform with low-power micro-electromechanical (MEMS) and liquid crystal (LC) actuators to enable large-scale programmable photonic integrated circuits (PICs).
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31.
  • Khan, Umar, et al. (författare)
  • MORPHIC : MEMS enhanced silicon photonics for programmable photonics
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: Integrated Photonics Platforms Ii. - : SPIE-Intl Soc Optical Eng.
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • We present our work in the European project MORPHIC to extend an established silicon photonics platform with low-power and non-volatile micro-electromechanical (MEMS) actuators to demonstrate large-scale programmable photonic integrated circuits (PICs).
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32.
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33.
  • Li, Yingying, 1994-, et al. (författare)
  • Design and fabrication of a 4-terminal in-plane nanoelectromechanical relay
  • 2023
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • We present 4-terminal (4-T) silicon (Si) nanoelectronmechanical (NEM) relays fabricated on silicon-oninsulator (SOI) wafers. We demonstrate true 4-T switching behavior with isolated control and signal paths. A pull-in voltage as low as 11.6 V is achieved with the miniaturized design. 4-T NEM relays are a very promising candidate for building ultra-low-power logic circuits since they enable novel circuit architectures to realize logic functions with far fewer devices than CMOS implementations, while also allowing the dynamic power consumption to be reduced by body-biasing.
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34.
  • Li, Yingying, 1994-, et al. (författare)
  • Integrated 4-terminal single-contact nanoelectromechanical relays implemented in a silicon-on-insulator foundry process
  • 2023
  • Ingår i: Nanoscale. - : Royal Society of Chemistry. - 2040-3364 .- 2040-3372.
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Integrated nanoelectromechanical (NEM) relays can be used instead of transistors to implement ultra-low power logic circuits, due to their abrupt turn-off characteristics and zero off-state leakage. Further, realizing circuits with 4-terminal (4-T) NEM relays enables significant reduction in circuit device count compared to conventional transistor circuits. For practical 4-T NEM circuits, however, the relays need to be miniaturized and integrated with high-density back-end-of-line (BEOL) interconnects, which is challenging and has not been realized to date. Here, we present electrostatically actuated silicon 4-T NEM relays that are integrated with multi-layer BEOL metal interconnects, implemented using a commercial silicon-on-insulator (SOI) foundry process. We demonstrate 4-T switching and the use of body-biasing to reduce pull-in voltage of a relay with a 300 nm airgap, from 15.8 V to 7.8 V, consistent with predictions of the finite-element model. Our 4-T NEM relay technology enables new possibilities for realizing NEM-based circuits for applications demanding harsh environment computation and zero standby power, in industries such as automotive, Internet-of-Things, and aerospace.
  •  
35.
  • Quack, Niels, et al. (författare)
  • Exploiting Mechanics at the Micro- and Nanoscale for Efficient Reconfiguration of Photonic Integrated Circuits
  • 2019
  • Ingår i: IEEE Photonics Society Summer Topical Meeting Series 2019, SUM 2019. ; , s. 1-1
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • We exploit Micro- & Nano-Electro-Mechanical Systems in Photonic Integrated Circuits to perform basic photonic operations, including phase shifting, attenuation and switching. Due to their small footprint and low insertion loss, Photonic MEMS are highly scalable, while mechanical latching mechanisms can offer zero steady state power consumption.
  •  
36.
  • Quack, Niels, et al. (författare)
  • Integrated silicon photonic MEMS
  • 2023
  • Ingår i: MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING. - : Springer Nature. - 2055-7434. ; 9:1
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Silicon photonics has emerged as a mature technology that is expected to play a key role in critical emerging applications, including very high data rate optical communications, distance sensing for autonomous vehicles, photonic-accelerated computing, and quantum information processing. The success of silicon photonics has been enabled by the unique combination of performance, high yield, and high-volume capacity that can only be achieved by standardizing manufacturing technology. Today, standardized silicon photonics technology platforms implemented by foundries provide access to optimized library components, including low-loss optical routing, fast modulation, continuous tuning, high-speed germanium photodiodes, and high-efficiency optical and electrical interfaces. However, silicon's relatively weak electro-optic effects result in modulators with a significant footprint and thermo-optic tuning devices that require high power consumption, which are substantial impediments for very large-scale integration in silicon photonics. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology can enhance silicon photonics with building blocks that are compact, low-loss, broadband, fast and require very low power consumption. Here, we introduce a silicon photonic MEMS platform consisting of high-performance nano-opto-electromechanical devices fully integrated alongside standard silicon photonics foundry components, with wafer-level sealing for long-term reliability, flip-chip bonding to redistribution interposers, and fibre-array attachment for high port count optical and electrical interfacing. Our experimental demonstration of fundamental silicon photonic MEMS circuit elements, including power couplers, phase shifters and wavelength-division multiplexing devices using standardized technology lifts previous impediments to enable scaling to very large photonic integrated circuits for applications in telecommunications, neuromorphic computing, sensing, programmable photonics, and quantum computing.
  •  
37.
  •  
38.
  • Quack, Niels, et al. (författare)
  • MEMS-Enabled Silicon Photonic Integrated Devices and Circuits
  • 2020
  • Ingår i: IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics. - : IEEE. - 0018-9197 .- 1558-1713. ; 56:1
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Photonic integrated circuits have seen a dramatic increase in complexity over the past decades. This development has been spurred by recent applications in datacenter communications and enabled by the availability of standardized mature technology platforms. Mechanical movement of wave-guiding structures at the micro- and nanoscale provides unique opportunities to further enhance functionality and to reduce power consumption in photonic integrated circuits. We here demonstrate integration of MEMS-enabled components in a simplified silicon photonics process based on IMEC's Standard iSiPP50G Silicon Photonics Platform and a custom release process.
  •  
39.
  • Quack, N., et al. (författare)
  • Scalable Nano-Opto-Electromechanical Systems in Silicon Photonics
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: 2021 IEEE Photonics Conference, IPC 2021 - Proceedings. - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Recent advances in integration of Nano-Opto-Electromechanical Systems in Silicon Photonics enable fundamental photonic operations such as switching, phase shifting or power equalization on-chip. The unique combination of high optical efficiency, low electric power consumption and compact footprint, provides outstanding opportunities in scalability to large-scale photonic integrated circuits.
  •  
40.
  • Quack, N., et al. (författare)
  • Silicon photonic MEMS : Exploiting mechanics at the nanoscale to enhance photonic integrated circuits
  • 2019
  • Ingår i: Optics InfoBase Conference Papers. - Washington, D.C. : OSA - The Optical Society.
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • With the maturing and the increasing complexity of Silicon Photonics technology, novel avenues are pursued to reduce power consumption and to provide enhanced functionality: exploiting mechanical movement in advanced Silicon Photonic Integrated Circuits provides a promising path to access a strong modulation of the effective index and to low power consumption by employing mechanically stable and thus non-volatile states. In this paper, we will discuss recent achievements in the development of MEMS enabled systems in Silicon Photonics and outline the roadmap towards reconfigurable general Photonic Integrated Circuits. 
  •  
41.
  • Rajendran, Khannan, et al. (författare)
  • Thermo-mechanical Noise Measurement of Sealed Nanobeams on a Silicon Photonics-MEMS Platform
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: 2021 IEEE 17Th International Conference On Group Iv Photonics (GFP 2021). - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The thermal motion of a vacuum packaged, suspended nano-beam and nanophotonic waveguide on a silicon photonics-MEMS platform is measured. The resonance frequency and Q-factor of the observed mechanical modes are determined. We also experimentally estimate the displacement sensitivity to be 1.779 +/- 0.022 fm/root Hz.
  •  
42.
  • Sattari, Hamed, et al. (författare)
  • Low-voltage silicon photonic mems switch with vertical actuation
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: 2021 34th ieee international conference on micro electro mechanical systems (mems 2021). - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). ; , s. 298-301
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • We present a vertically movable silicon photonic MEMS switch realized in IMEC's standard silicon photonics platform followed by a dedicated postprocessing for MEMS release. The device has six optical ports, which enable four switching configurations with a safe electrical isolation of the switch's actuator. A low actuation voltage of 3.75 V is required to efficiently switch the optical signal from the drop port to the through port of the device. The device exhibits port extinctions of 16 dB and 26 dB at its OFF and ON states, respectively. With an insertion loss of < 2 dB and a broad 3 dB-bandwidth > 35 nm, this component paves the way for low-power scalable circuits in MEMS-enabled silicon photonics.
  •  
43.
  • Sattari, Hamed, et al. (författare)
  • Silicon Photonic MEMS Add-Drop Filter
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: 2020 european conference on optical communications (ecoc). - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • We demonstrate a compact add-drop filter based on a MEMS ring resonator implemented in IMEC's iSiPP50G silicon photonics platform. The device exhibits a port extinction of 20 dB and a port isolation of > 50 dB, upon actuation range of 0 V to 27 V.
  •  
44.
  • Sattari, Hamed, et al. (författare)
  • Silicon photonic microelectromechanical systems add-drop ring resonator in a foundry process
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: JOURNAL OF OPTICAL MICROSYSTEMS. - : SPIE-Intl Soc Optical Eng. - 2708-5260. ; 2:04
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Photonic add-drop filters are crucial components for the implementation of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) in fiber-optic communication systems. The recent progress in photonic integration has shown the potential to integrate photonic add-drop filters alongside high-performance photonic building blocks on a chip to construct compact and complex photonic-integrated circuits for WDM. Typically, implementations are based on micro-ring resonators with integrated heaters or free carrier dispersion-based modulators to adjust the filter wavelength. However, heaters suffer from high power consumption, and free carriers result in optical absorption losses, limiting the scalability toward very-large-scale circuits. We demonstrate the design, simulation, fabrication, and experimental characterization of a compact add-drop filter based on a vertically movable, MEMS-actuated ring resonator. The MEMSactuated add-drop filter is implemented in IMEC's iSiPP50G silicon photonics platform and realized using a short post-processing flow to safely release the suspended MEMS structures in a wafer-level compatible process. The filter exhibits a through port linewidth of similar to 1 nm (124.37 GHz) at 1557.1 nm, and it retains a port extinction of 20 dB and a port isolation of > 50 dB under 27 V of actuation voltage. The combination of low-power consumption and a compact footprint demonstrates the suitability for very-large-scale integration in photonic circuits.
  •  
45.
  • Takabayashi, Alain Y., et al. (författare)
  • Broadband Compact Single-Pole Double-Throw Silicon Photonic MEMS Switch
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: Journal of microelectromechanical systems. - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). - 1057-7157 .- 1941-0158. ; 30:2, s. 322-329
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Photonic Integrated Circuits (PICs) benefit from the technology advances in the semiconductor industry to incorporate an ever-increasing number of photonic components on a single chip to create large-scale photonic integrated circuits. We here present a broadband, compact and low-loss Silicon Photonic MEMS switch based on a Single-Pole Double-Throw (SPDT) architecture, where curved electrostatic actuators mechanically displace a movable input waveguide to redirect the optical signal on chip efficiently to either of two output waveguides. The photonic switch has been fabricated in an established silicon photonics technology platform with custom MEMS release post-processing. With a compact footprint of $\mathbf 65\times 62\, \boldsymbol μ \mathbf m^\mathbf 2$ , the switch exhibits an extinction ratio exceeding 23 dB over 70 nm optical bandwidth, a low insertion loss and a fast response time below $1 μ \texts$ , meeting the requirements for integration in large-scale reconfigurable Photonic Integrated Circuits. [2020-0391]
  •  
46.
  • Takabayashi, Alain Y., et al. (författare)
  • Compact Integrated Silicon Photonic Mems Power Coupler For Programmable Photonics
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: 2022 IEEE 35Th International Conference On Micro Electro Mechanical Systems Conference (MEMS). - : IEEE. ; , s. 216-219
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Programmable photonics promise a plethora of optical functions while at the same time reducing the time and costs of photonic integrated circuit (PIC) development. One primary bottleneck for development of these systems is the difficulty in increasing component density because of excessive power consumption. We here present a MEMS-based Silicon Photonic power coupler that offers high optical performance (> 18 dB extinction ratio (ER), < 1.2 dB insertion loss (IL), and > 80 nm of optical bandwidth) within a compact footprint (25 mu m x 150 mu m) to provide a power-efficient active function: fast, continuous power tuning.
  •  
47.
  • Takabayashi, Alain Y., et al. (författare)
  • Continuously Tunable Silicon Photonic Mems 2 X 2 Power Coupler
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: 2021 21St International Conference On Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems (Transducers). - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). ; , s. 447-450
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The integration of MEMS transducers in photonic integrated circuits provides opportunities for high efficiency photonic modulation and dynamic routing on-chip. We here present an electrostatically actuated, silicon photonic MEMS 2 x 2 power coupler, fabricated in IMEC's iSiPP50G platform followed by a dedicated MEMS release sequence. The in-plane, mechanical tuning mechanism provides analog power coupling between waveguides in a small form factor. With our experimental demonstration of broad, > 30 nm optical bandwidth, high extinction ratio of > 27 dB, and a low actuation voltage of only 6 V, the coupler fulfills the requirements for large-scale integration in next generation reconfigurable PICs.
  •  
48.
  • Van Iseghem, Lukas, et al. (författare)
  • Liquid crystal phase shifter integrated in a silicon photonics platform
  • 2020
  • Ingår i: Proceedings of the 22nd European Conference on Integrated Optics (ECIO) 2020.
  • Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • We demonstrate a compact phase shifter using liquid crystal actuation, integrated in an established siliconphotonics platform. The devices are fabricated using IMEC’s iSiPP50G platform with a simple post-processing,making this technology compatible with current fabrication possibilities. In this first device demonstration we measure 0.75 pi phase shift for 10 V actuation over a 60 micrometer length.
  •  
49.
  • Van Iseghem, Lukas, et al. (författare)
  • Low power optical phase shifter using liquid crystal actuation on a silicon photonics platform
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: Optical Materials Express. - : Optica Publishing Group. - 2159-3930 .- 2159-3930. ; 12:6, s. 2181-2198
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Low-power and compact phase shifters are crucial for large photonic circuits, both to cope with variability and to create programmable waveguide circuits scaling to thousands of tuning elements. This work demonstrates a liquid crystal phase shifter where a lateral silicon electrode "rail" on one side of the waveguide core. Using this architecture, a strong quasi-static electric field Eactuation can be applied over the gap, which is filled with liquid crystal cladding material, with modest voltages. Because the mode is largely confined in the waveguide, optical losses are limited, compared to earlier experiments with slot waveguides. The liquid crystal is deposited locally on three different device variations using inkjet printing. The local deposition avoids unwanted interference of the liquid crystal with other optical components such as grating couplers. Measurements show similar trends as simulations of the liquid crystal orientations. For one device with a length of 50∼µm, a phase shift of almost 0.9π is shown at 10∼VRMS. We also discuss the challenges with this first demonstration of this phase shifter geometry using a silicon side-rail as an electrode.
  •  
50.
  • Wang, Xiaojing, 1990-, et al. (författare)
  • Wafer-Level Vacuum Sealing by Transfer Bonding of Silicon Caps for Small Footprint and Ultra-Thin MEMS Packages
  • 2019
  • Ingår i: Journal of microelectromechanical systems. - 1057-7157 .- 1941-0158. ; 28:3, s. 460-471
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Vacuum and hermetic packaging is a critical requirement for optimal performance of many micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), vacuum electronics, and quantum devices. However, existing packaging solutions are either elaborate to implement or rely on bulky caps and footprint-consuming seals. Here, we address this problem by demonstrating a wafer-level vacuum packaging method featuring transfer bonding of 25-μm-thin silicon (Si) caps that are transferred from a 100-mm-diameter silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer to a cavity wafer to seal the cavities by gold-aluminum (Au-Al) thermo-compression bonding at a low temperature of 250 °C. The resulting wafer-scale sealing yields after wafer dicing are 98% and 100% with sealing rings as narrow as 6 and 9 μm, respectively. Despite the small sealing footprint, the Si caps with 9-μm-wide sealing rings demonstrate a high mean shear strength of 127 MPa. The vacuum levels in the getter-free sealed cavities are measured by residual gas analysis to be as low as 1.3 mbar, based on which a leak rate smaller than 2.8x10-14 mbarL/s is derived. We also show that the thickness of the Si caps can be reduced to 6 μm by post-transfer etching while still maintaining excellent hermeticity. The demonstrated ultra-thin packages can potentially be placed in between the solder bumps in flip-chip interfaces, thereby avoiding the need of through-cap-vias in conventional MEMS packages.
  •  
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