| 1. |
- Tsampas, Spyros, et al.
(författare)
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The effect of high temperature on the mechanical performance of novel high Tg polyimide-based carbon fibre-reinforced laminates
- 2016
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Ingår i: ECCM 2016 - Proceeding of the 17th European Conference on Composite Materials. - : European Conference on Composite Materials, ECCM. - 9783000533877
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- In this study, the outcomes from the mechanical testing of the carbon fibre-reinforced polyimide composite system T650/NEXIMID® MHT-R at ambient and elevated temperatures are presented. These results are compared to assess the effect of mechanical loading at 320°C on the performance of the system in tension, compression and Short-Beam Shear. The experimental campaign indicated that the mechanical loading at 320°C had a trivial effect on the tensile properties (fibre-dominated) whilst a more pronounced effect was noted on the compression and Short-Beam Shear (matrix and fibre/matrix interface-dominated properties).
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| 2. |
- Aitomäki, Yvonne, et al.
(författare)
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Novel reactive bicomponent fibres : Material in composite manufacturing
- 2012
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Ingår i: Journal of Nanostructured Polymers and Nanocomposites. - 1790-4439. ; 8:1, s. 5-11
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The hypotheses that reactive uncured, thermoset bicomponent fibres can be prepared and mixed with reinforcing fibres and ultimately used in preparation of a composite was tested and is described. It is thought that such fibres have the two potential advantages: (1) to enable manufacturing with particle doped resins e.g. nanocomposites which add functionality to composites and (2) increased efficiency of structural composite manufacturing by increasing the level of automation. The structure of the thermoset fibres comprises of a sheath of thermoplastic and a core of uncured thermoset resin. Once manufactured, the fibres were wound with a reinforced fibre onto a plate, consolidated and cured. The resulting composite was examined and compared to other composites made with the same manufacturing method from commercially available materials. The results show that a laminate can be produced using these reactive bicomponent fibres. The resin system successfully impregnates the reinforcing carbon fibres and that the thermoplastic separates from the epoxy resin system during consolidation. In comparison to reference material, the bicomponent laminate shows promising characteristics. However, the processes developed are currently on a lab-scale and considerable improvement of various bicomponent fibre properties, such as the strength, are required before the technology can be used on a larger scale.
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| 3. |
- Alnersson, Gustaf
(författare)
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Towards 3D modelling of Compression Moulding of SMC
- 2021
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The automotive industry is facing ever increasing demands for reduced emissions, and lightweight solutions are thusly required. One field that has significant potential in this regard is composite materials, which can offer a good combination of weight reduction and mechanical properties. However, the rapid development cycles in the automotive industry mean that tools for numerical modeling are necessary, both regarding manufacturing processes and prediction of mechanical properties. The material that has been of interest for this work is Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC). SMC consists of sheets of resin and chopped fibres. When used for manufacturing the sheets are cut into appropriate size and shape. The cut sheets are then placed in a pre-heated mould. When this mould is closed, the sheets melt and the fibre-filled resin flows out and fills the mould cavity; the resin then cures and solidifies. A significant advantage of SMC compared to other composite solutions is that the process has comparatively short cycle times, which is a necessity for automotive applications. However, it is a rather complicated process to model numerically for a number of reasons, including the complex rheological properties of the charge, the often rather significant temperature gradients throughout the thickness, often complicated three-dimensional effects in the flow, and the chopped fibres present in the charge. These fibres will move and change orientation as the charge is pressed, which is a significant challenge to model properly.The first part of this work is a review and discussion of the difficulties described above, and some solutions that have been suggested. The second part concerns a suggestion for a three-dimensional flow model for the compression moulding process, which takes into account factors that have been suggested to influence the flow behavior, such as temperature distribution and shear strain rate. Some simulation results are presented along with comparison to previous experimental results, and similar flow patterns are observed serving as a qualitative validation. The third part concerns the expansion of this model to include the effects of the flow on the fibre orientation.
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| 4. |
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| 5. |
- Carlson, Tony
(författare)
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Multi-functional composite materials : CFRP thin film capacitors
- 2011
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The use of lightweight materials in structural applications is ever increasing. Today, lightweight engineering materials are needed to realise greener, safer and more competitive products. A route to achieve this could be to combine more than one primary function in a material or component to create multi-functionality, thus reducing the number of components and ultimately the overall weight. This thesis presents an approach towards realising novel multi-functional polymer composites. A series of structural capacitor materials made from carbon fibre reinforced polymers have been developed, manufactured and tested. In papers I and II, capacitors have been manufactured using different papers and polymer films as dielectric separator employing carbon fibre/epoxy pre-pregs as structural electrodes. Plasma treatment was used as a route for improved epoxy/polymer film adhesion. The manufactured materials were evaluated for mechanical performance by ILSS and tearing tests and electrical performance by measuring capacitance and dielectric breakdown voltage. In paper III the concept was extended in a parametric study using the most promising approach with a polymer film as dielectric separator. Three thicknesses of PET (50, 75 and 125 µm) were used as dielectric separator with carbon fibre/epoxy pre-pregs as structural electrodes. PET was chosen due to availability in different thicknesses as well as the frequent use in ordinary capacitors making it a suitable candidate. As in paper I and II, plasma treatment was used to improve the PET/epoxy adhesion. The capacitor materials were evaluated for mechanical performance by tensile tests and ILSS and for electrical performance by measuring capacitance and dielectric breakdown voltage. The multifunctional materials shows good potential for replacing steel and other materials with lower specific mechanical properties but cannot match the high specific mechanical performance of mono-functional materials. Both mechanical and electrical performance could have large benefits from developing new separator materials adapted for use in multifunctional applications and could be an interesting field for extended research.
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| 6. |
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| 7. |
- Engström, Jonas, et al.
(författare)
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Characterization of carbon nanotube doped carbon fiber prepreg laminate
- 2012
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Ingår i: Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Composite Materials. - Venice : European Conference on Composite Materials, ECCM. - 9788888785332
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The current paper reports results from a preliminary study on PREGCYL™ NC R2HM-01 which is a carbon nanotube doped prepreg produced by Nanocyl. The work consisted of sample manufacturing in autoclave, microcopy analysis with XHR-SEM and mechanical testing. The mechanical testing consisted of tensile tests of unidirectional (in longitudinal direction) and cross-ply laminates. Test of unidirectional laminates showed that stiffness of the PREGCYL material is slightly higher than that of MTM55 composites (111GPa vs 102GPa). The results from tests of cross-ply laminates indicated that damage (transverse cracks) initiation is delayed in PREGCYL composites compare to the MTM55 material. Damage accumulation also seems to be slower in nano-doped composites.
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| 8. |
- Fernberg, Patrik, et al.
(författare)
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Carbon nanotube treated carbon fibre preforms for improved properties of aeronautical grade composites
- 2012
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Ingår i: ECCM 2012 - Composites at Venice, Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Composite Materials. - Padova : European Conference on Composite Materials, ECCM. - 9788888785332
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The current paper reports work on development of enhanced carbon fibre composites manufactured by resin transfer moulding (RTM). In particular, the possibility to obtain a toughened composite through deposition of carbon nanotubes (CNT) on the fibres is investigated. The hypothesis is that deposition of CNT on the fibre surface has two major advantages: a) filtering problems during manufacturing are eliminated and b) CNT can contribute to a local toughening in the vicinity of fibres, where stress concentrations often are high. Unidirectional and multi-axial composites, with and without CNT-modification, were manufactured using conventional RTM-technique and HexFlow®RTM6 epoxy resin. The composites were characterized by means of mechanical testing (interlaminar shear strength, ILSS) and microscopy. Significant improvements by 13 to37 % in ILSS values were achieved with the addition of CNT. Stiffness degradation tests were also performed. The results from these tests were not completely conclusive. Some treatments promoted stiffness degradation whereas others had no apparent effect.
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| 9. |
- Fernberg, Patrik, et al.
(författare)
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Damage detection in carbon fibre cross-ply laminates by aid of carbon nanotube doped resin
- 2008
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Ingår i: 13th European Conference on Composite Materials.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The possibility to use resistance variations of carbon nanotube (CNT) doped carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) to characterise the level of microstructural damage in the form of transverse cracking is experimentally investigated in the current work. The resistance of CNT-doped and unmodified CFRP was measured after they had been subjected to stepwise increased tensile loading. Both increase and decrease resistance was observed which made it difficult to make any firm statement that the changes we observed were due to damage. The conductivity along carbon fibres is dominating electrical conductivity of the studied cross-ply laminate. Any disturbance of conductive CNT based nanocomposite matrix by transverse cracks in 90-layer therefore caused too small changes of resistance to be measured with current experimental setup.
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| 10. |
- Fernberg, Patrik, et al.
(författare)
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"Detect" - a new defect detection method and its use on sheet moulding compound (SMC) substrates
- 2008
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Ingår i: Composites for sustainable progress. - Stockholm.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- A novel optical method for detection of surface porosities on SMC substrates is presented. Detection is facilitated by observation of how a liquid film on the surface evaporates. The method utilizes the fact that complete evaporation takes longer time in the pores than elsewhere. The rate of change of a laser speckle pattern gives a measure of the changes at the surface and indicates where pores causes prolonged evaporation. A pilot measurement unit was built that shows that the principle ideas of the system work. Attempts were made to develop the pilot unit so that it could provide quantitative numbers of actual defects on an SMC substrate. The results are encouraging in the sense that the unit can automatically identify areas with higher number of defects.
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| 11. |
- Fernberg, Patrik, et al.
(författare)
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Determination of bridging laws for SMC materials from DENT tests
- 2003
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Ingår i: Composites Science And Technology. - 0266-3538 .- 1879-1050. ; 63:15, s. 2143-2153
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A bridging law (or cohesive zone law) approach is employed to evaluate the fracture of double edge notched tensile (DENT) specimen from two SMC materials (Std-SMC and Flex-SMC) with considerable difference in fracture characteristics. Linear- and non-linear FEM was used to separate volumetric body contributions and true crack opening from measured displacements (measured with extensometer) over the cracked region. We found that extrinsic non-linear material response gave a significant contribution to measured displacements. The paper also considers the influence of specimen dimensions on the characteristics of fracture. This is of great importance since stable crack growth is required in order to allow a complete determination of the bridging law in a single experiment. By applying corrections for volumetric displacements in the data reduction scheme we were able to estimate the bridging laws of the two SMCs respectively. They were found to be of decreasing nature and two distinct regions were identified. For small δ, a steeply decreasing part where debonding and fiber fracture are major micro-scale failure mechanism, is identified. At larger δ, a transition to a less steep bridging law response is observed. Pullout friction governs the bridging law at that stage. © 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 12. |
- Fernberg, Patrik, et al.
(författare)
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Development of novel high Tg polyimide-based composites. Part I : RTM processing properties
- 2018
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Ingår i: Journal of composite materials. - : SAGE Publications. - 0021-9983 .- 1530-793X. ; 52:2, s. 253-260
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In this study, an assessment of the composite processing-related properties of a newly developed 6-FDA-based phenylethynyl-terminated polyimide (available under the tradename NEXIMID®MHT-R) is presented. Processing schemes, used for preparing high quality carbon fibre-reinforced composites by the use of conventional resin transfer moulding are developed and presented. The influences of manufacturing parameters on glass transition temperature of the composites are presented. The results confirm that composites with exceptionally high Tg, in the range between 350 and 460℃ can be achieved. A manufacturing scheme that yields in composites with Tg of 370℃ is presented and proposed as a good candidate to serve as baseline for further studies.
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| 13. |
- Fernberg, Patrik
(författare)
-
Fiber bridging concepts applied to short fiber composites
- 2000
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Polymer composite materials are in wide-spread use in the transportation industry. In aerospace industry the use these materials are established while in automotive industry the interest is increasing. The attention of automotive industry is to a great deal focused on various kinds of molded composites such as glass mat reinforced thermoplastics (GMT) and sheet molding compound (SMC). Their interest is to a large extent driven by the possibility to manufacture components of complex geometry in a cost- efficient process with these materials. An increasing number of car and truck manufacturers are using SMC for external panels such as trunk covers, hoods, roofs and spoilers. A property of obvious importance for an external car- or truck-panel is its capacity to withstand impact. In this context, improved understanding of crack growth and toughening mechanisms of the material is of great interest. A major part of the work presented in this thesis is driven by an interest to increase the understanding of how material composition and microstructure of short fiber composites influence their overall fracture behaviour. In materials such as metals and unreinforced polymers, linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) is widely used, often with great success, both in design and in development of new materials. Unfortunately, problems arise when LEFM is applied to short fiber composites. This is due to the large process zone that develops ahead of a crack in these materials. The fundamental assumption of LEFM, that the damage zone at the tip of the crack is small compared to crack length, is often violated in experiments. The presented thesis considers a different approach, in which the damage ahead of a crack tip is described by a bridging-law. By considering the bridging-law as the major failure property of the material, a coupling between mechanisms acting on a microscale and the macroscopic failure behaviour can be established. No such information can be obtained using a LEFM approach where the material behaviour is described in terms of a single value, the fracture toughness. Bridging-laws for three different short fiber composites are experimentally determined and presented in the first paper of the thesis. A matter of key importance for future work in this field is that there are methods available for experimental verification of the suggested fiber bridging approach. Optical strain field measurement methods are therefore very useful. The thesis contains a pilot study to evaluate the use of two recently developed optical methods , Stereoscopic Digital Speckle Photography (Stereo-DSP) and combined DSP-DSPI (Digital Speckle Pattern Interferometry), for measurements of fracture behaviour of notched short fiber composites. We found Stereo-DSP to be a versatile technique that can be used when knowledge of overall displacement fields is required. The combined technique can with advantage be used when detailed information about large deformation at small areas is of interest, e.g. the complex fiber bridging interaction at the crack tip of a short fiber composite. The last paper in the thesis presents a study where the influence of fiber surface treatment on transverse cracking in cross-ply laminates was investigated. In the case of tubes and pressure vessels, the formation of transverse cracks ultimately leads to leakage since cracks connect and form a path through the wall. In the presented study, our ambition was to investigate the influence of film former polymer on transverse cracking properties of cross-ply laminates.Both onset of transverse cracking and tendency for multiple crack development were strongly affected by the different film formers. The strong film former effect was proposed to be due to a combination of improved interfacial adhesion and the plasticizing effect from the film former on the interphase region. The thesis is composed by the following papers: Patrik Fernberg, Lars Berglund, Bridging law and toughness characterisation of CSM and SMC composite, to be submitted. Angelica Andersson, Patrik Fernberg, Mikael Sjödahl, Optical methods to study fracture of notched glass mat composites. Proceedings of the International Conference on trends in Optical Nondestructive Testing, Lugano, Switzerland, May 3-6, 2000 (in press). Patrik Fernberg, Lars Berglund, Effects of glass fiber size composition (film former type) on transverse cracking in cross-ply laminates. Accepted for publication in Composites, Part A.
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| 14. |
- Fernberg, Patrik
(författare)
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Fibre reinforced polyimide composites and structures manufactured with resin transfer moulding - Overview of procedures and properties
- 2016
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Ingår i: ECCM 2016 - Proceeding of the 17th European Conference on Composite Materials. - : European Conference on Composite Materials, ECCM. - 9783000533877
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- In this paper, the major outcomes from a recently completed research program with ambition to develop polyimide carbon fibre composites with temperature ability above 360°C are reported. Data from characterisation of the processing properties such as viscosity and cure behaviour are presented alongside with data on the mechanical properties at room temperature of quasi-isotropic composites based on the developed resin and 8-harness satin weave carbon fibre fabrics. The paper also contains a demonstration of the use the material system in a demonstrator component.
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| 15. |
- Fernberg, Patrik, et al.
(författare)
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Mechanisms controlling particle distribution in infusion molded composites
- 2006
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Ingår i: Journal of reinforced plastics and composites (Print). - : SAGE Publications. - 0731-6844 .- 1530-7964. ; 25:1, s. 59-70
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This article presents results from an experimental investigation in which two grades of aluminatrihydroxide (ATH) particles are added to liquid resin and used in infusion molding experiments. Based on the results, potential key mechanisms controlling resin flow and hence also the final particle distribution are proposed. A pore doublet model is proposed to explain the seemingly random spatial distribution of particle-dense regions within the final material. These dense regions are found within flow channels, at locations where local shear strain rates are low. This suggests that they are formed as a consequence of a Bingham type of viscosity behavior observed for the suspension and/or due to filtering of particles during fiber bundle impregnation. © 2006 SAGE Publications.
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| 16. |
- Fernberg, Patrik, et al.
(författare)
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Piezoresistive performance of long-fiber composites with carbon nanotube doped matrix
- 2009
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Ingår i: Journal of Intelligent Materials Systems and Structures. - 1045-389X .- 1530-8138. ; 20:9, s. 1017-1023
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The electrical and mechanical properties of carbon nanotube (CNT) doped epoxy resin and composites based on this matrix were studied. The investigation was carried out on neat nanocomposites and on structural composites i.e., when the nanocomposite is used as matrix in composite materials reinforced with long continuous fibers. Tensile tests showed that CNT doped epoxy exhibited clear piezoresistive behavior. It was, however, also shown that geometrical changes of the specimen also contribute significantly to resistance changes during tensile loading. Particular effort was made to establish the relations between transverse cracking in glass fiber cross-ply laminates with nanotube doped matrix and changes of electrical resistance. It was shown that changes of electrical resistance during tensile loading of composites containing CNT doped matrix gives highly relevant information about the damage state of the material. In an unloaded state the resistance change is proportional to the relative change of stiffness. This work demonstrates that there are three different mechanisms, which contribute to changes of electrical resistance of a composite specimen subjected to tensile strain. These three mechanisms are: (a) geometrical changes of the specimen (b) piezoresistive material response, and (c) accumulation of micro-damage.
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| 17. |
- Fernberg, Patrik, et al.
(författare)
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Piezoresistive performance of long fibre composites with carbon nanotube doped matrix
- 2007
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Ingår i: Proceedings of COMP07.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The electrical and mechanical properties of carbon nanotube doped epoxy resin and composites based on this matrix were studied. The investigation was carried out on neat nanocomposites and on structural composites i.e. when the nanocomposite is used as matrix in composite materials reinforced with long continuous fibers. Tensile tests showed that carbon nanotube (CNT) doped epoxy exhibited a clear piezoresistive behavior. It was however also shown that geometrical changes of the specimen also contribute significantly to resistance changes during tensile loading. Particular effort was made to establish the relations between transverse cracking in glass fibre cross-ply laminates with nanotube doped matrix and resistance changes. It was shown that resistance changes during tensile loading of composites containing CNT doped matrix gives highly relevant information about the damage state of the material. In an unloaded state the resistance change is proportional to the relative change of stiffness. This work demonstrates that there are three different mechanisms which contribute to resistance changes of a composite specimen subjected to tensile strain. These three mechanisms are: a) geometrical changes of the specimen b) piezoresistive material response and c) accumulation of micro-damage
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| 18. |
- Fernberg, Patrik, et al.
(författare)
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Processing and properties of new polyimide composites with high temperature ability
- 2014
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Ingår i: 16th European Conference on Composite Materials, ECCM 2014. - : European Conference on Composite Materials, ECCM. - 9780000000002
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The communication present results from work on development and evaluation of new polymeric carbon fiber composites with extreme temperature performance: Tg up to 360°C is targeted. The anticipated use of such composites is found in aeroengine-applications. In the work we are exploring a new and tailored phenyl ethynyl terminated imide (PETI) formulation, specially developed for the program. The formulation utilizes crosslinkers of the Nexamide" type (from Nexam Chemical AB, Sweden). The resins are initially evaluated from a processing and property perspective. Both DSC-measurements and rheology characterization are utilized in the development. Suitable RTM-processing schemes are investigated from a viscosity point of view. The schemes are used in the composite sample manufacturing. Besides a processing perspective the study also present the first results on physical behavior of the polymers and their composites.
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| 19. |
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| 20. |
- Fernberg, Patrik, et al.
(författare)
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Strain and damage sensing during loading of carbon nanotube doped composites
- 2009
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Ingår i: ICCM International Conferences on Composite Materials. - London : IOM Communications.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- This work explores the possibility to use resistance changes in a carbon nanotube (CNT) doped composites to monitor deformations and damage. Most other studies in the field are done on simplified uniaxial loading whereas current work also evaluates the possibilities to monitor strain in more complex loading case, such as bending.
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| 21. |
- Fernberg, Patrik
(författare)
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Toughness of short fiber composites : an approach based on crack-bridging
- 2002
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The presented work considers how to properly characterize fracture properties of short fiber composites (SFC). Associated with fracture of SFC is the creation of a comparably widespread fracture process zone. This zone develops since a number of inelastic failure mechanisms (e.g. debonding, microcracking, fiber failure and fiber pull-out) take place in the vicinity of an advancing crack. In the present approach, a bridging law (or cohesive zone law) approach is adopted in order to characterize the fracture toughness of the material. Conventional fracture toughness measures, such as KIC were in most cases found not to be applicable. This was because fundamental small-scale yielding geometry requirements could not be fulfilled in experiments. The bridging law approach captures previously mentioned mechanisms in terms of a closure stress (bridging stress). This stress acts between two fictitious crack planes. The relation between crack opening displacement and bridging stress is governed by the bridging law. Parts of the presented work consider determination of bridging laws from experiments (Paper I and Paper III). Different experimental configurations, double cantilever beam (DCB) specimens loaded with pure moments and double edge notched tension (DENT) specimens, were used in the two studies. A main conclusion from Paper I is that the large differences in fracture characteristics between two sheet molding compound (SMC) composites could be explained on the basis of bridging laws and their influence on fracture energy. Similar observations were made in Paper III. In Paper III, it also was evident that the intrinsic non-linearity of bulk SMC material has to be considered separately in the data reduction of experimental results, in order to capture the bridging law. Bilinear approximations of decreasing bridging laws were obtained as a result from the study. A closer investigation on the mechanical behavior of SMC with varied composition was performed in Paper II. Various mechanical tests, including tension, compression, in situ studies, DCB and stiffness degradation measurements through quasi-static cyclic loading-unloading experiments, were employed. The purpose was to characterize and understand observed differences between conventional and toughened SMC with low density additives. The applicability of the proposed bridging law approach is confirmed by the work presented in Paper IV and Paper V. In these papers, the previously measured (Paper I and Paper III) bridging relations are used as a constitutive property in predictions of structural behavior of specimens with varied geometry. Paper IV considers that bridging law parameters can be used to predict and explain the change in notch-sensitivity observed on SMC DENT-specimens with varied geometry. A comparably simple analytical route (neglecting non-linear bulk behavior and shape of bridging law) is employed with satisfactory results. In Paper V, the use of the finite element method (FEM) in conjunction with measured bilinear bridging laws, allows reconstruction of experimentally measured compact tension (CT) specimen load vs. displacement curves with good accuracy. Three different CT specimen geometries are considered. Modeling and experimental results from Paper V also shows that compression failure often is of equal importance as tensile, in real structures and loading conditions.
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| 22. |
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| 23. |
- Fernberg, S. Patrik, et al.
(författare)
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Influence of post-cure on carbon fibre polyimide composites with glass transition temperatures above 400ºC
- 2015
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Ingår i: ICCM International Conferences on Composite Materials. - : International Committee on Composite Materials.
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The current communication present results from work on polymeric composites with extreme temperature performance. We are studying carbon fibre composites based on a new phenyl ethynyl terminated polyimide formulation NEXIMID® MHT-R (Nexam Chemicals AB, Sweden) based on hexafluoroisopropylidene bisphthalic dianhydride (6-FDA), 4-(Phenylethynyl)Phthalic Anhydride (4-PEPA) and ethynyl bis-phthalic anhydride (EBPA). This study in particular investigates how post-cure conditions such as time, temperature and atmosphere influence Tg of the composites. In addition to this we also trace and analyse the consequences of post-cure on weight loss and occurrence of micro-cracks. We are considering three different post-curing temperatures: 400°C, 420°C and 440°C in the study. Two different atmospheres, air and inert by nitrogen, were also investigated. In summary the results reveal that remarkably high Tg, up to around 460°C, is achieved with only very limited weight loss. It was also observed that some, but limited amounts of, micro-cracks are developed within the laminates due to the inevitable high thermal stresses generated upon cooling from cure temperature.
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| 24. |
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| 25. |
- Gonçalves Nunes, Stephanie, et al.
(författare)
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SHIFT FACTOR DEPENDENCE ON PHYSICAL AGING AND TEMPERATURE FOR VISCOELASTIC RESPONSE OF POLYMERS
- 2022
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Ingår i: ECCM 2022 - Proceedings of the 20th European Conference on Composite Materials. - Lausanne : Composite Construction Laboratory (CCLab), Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (EPFL). - 9782970161400 ; , s. 431-438
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- As polymeric resins are used as matrix in reinforced composites, understanding of their viscoelastic-viscoplastic response is critical for long-term performance design. However, during service life, thermosets are not in a thermodynamic equilibrium state, resulting in physical aging, which affects failure and viscoelastic (VE) properties, becoming a concern for industries. In this paper, an alternative methodology for testing and parameter determination for aging polymer, at different temperatures (TA) and times (tA), is proposed. The experimental data analysis was performed using a Schapery's type thermo-aging-rheologically simple VE model with constant coefficients in Prony series and the effect of temperature and aging included by two shift factors (aT, aA). Results showed that the shift factor can be presented as the product of shifts aT and aA. Furthermore, for short tA the change rate of the aA with tA does not depend on TA, whereas for long tA at high TA the rate increases.
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| 26. |
- Hörberg, Erik, 1977-
(författare)
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An Experimental Investigation of Shape Distortions in Aerospace Composites
- 2020
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Composite materials are increasingly used in primary structure of modern commercial aircraft. Its excellent material characteristics enables reduction of structural weight compared to traditional metal solutions and thereby offers reduction of fuel consumption and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. In the aerospace industry, carbon fibre reinforced plastics or CFRP is the most commonly used composite material, where the reinforcement is held together by a thermoset resin, often epoxy, referred to as the matrix.When manufacturing aircraft composite parts, the curing temperature is usually in-between 120°C to 180°C. As the constituents, i.e. fibre and matrix, have significantly different thermal expansion, the temperature difference from manufacturing of parts to assembly and in-service use results in shape distortions and/or development of residual stresses. With an increased size and complexity of structural parts used in modern aircraft, the development of efficient methods for shape distortion analysis are therefore becoming increasingly important. Shape distortions come from numerous sources and some of them like thermal expansion and chemical shrinkage during curing are fairly well studied and understood. The focus of this thesis is on less researched parameters such as the laminate bending stiffness and effects of moisture content.The bending stiffness of a laminate can be controlled by varying the thickness of the laminate, or by changing the layup sequence of individual plies. Paper A presents an experimental study on shape distortion were the effect of laminate bending stiffness is separated from that of the laminate thickness. The results show that it is possible to tailor the laminate layup in a way that is beneficial for in-plane loads, while still reducing the built-in stresses that occur in a composite component due to shape distortions.The second parameter investigated in this thesis is the laminate moisture content. Composite materials used in aircraft structures will be exposed to environmental effects such as varying temperatures and moisture. The exposure is seldom constant but varies over time, depending on seasonal change and geographical area of aircraft operation. In Paper B, the influence of laminate moisture content on shape distortions is experimentally investigated. It becomes clear that laminate moisture content has such a strong effect on shape distortions that it is important to control and predict for all composite structures.The results presented in this thesis show that both laminate bending stiffness and laminate moisture content have a great influence on shape distortions, and that further research and development is needed to improve the simulation methodology used within the aerospace industry. This is key to future cost-efficient production and assembly of large composite parts.
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| 27. |
- Jekabsons, N., et al.
(författare)
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Prediction of progressive fracture of SMC by application of bridging laws
- 2003
-
Ingår i: Composites Science And Technology. - 0266-3538 .- 1879-1050. ; 63:15, s. 2133-2142
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Experimentally obtained load vs. displacement curves from compact tension tests (CT) of two different SMC materials are analyzed in this paper. Three different CT specimen geometries are considered. Progressive fracture is attained in all tests. This gives rise to a long post-peak tail part in the load vs. displacement curve. By implementing bridging laws and volumetric stiffness degradation of bulk SMC in an FEM model we are able to reproduce the two larger geometries considered (50 mm × 50 mm and 100 mm × 100 mm) with high accuracy. Discrepancy between model predictions and experiments for the smallest geometry considered (20 × 20 mm) was observed. This was due to premature compressive failure on the side opposite to the CT specimen precrack. The successful use of bridging laws strongly suggests that they are intrinsic properties governing fracture behavior of SMC materials. The fact that our bridging laws were determined based on independent tests on different specimen geometry is adding strong arguments to preceding conclusion. © 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 28. |
- Larberg, Ylva, 1980-
(författare)
-
Deformability of unidirectional prepreg materials
- 2009
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- To reduce cost of structural composites the development of more efficient manufacturing methods is of great interest. Sheet forming of thermoset prepreg, also known as hot drape forming, has been a promising manufacturing method for decades. An automatic tape layer (ATL) can be used to perform the lay-up in an efficient way. The flatly stacked unidirectional prepreg forms a sheet to be formed over a given mould. Knowledge about the materials forming behaviour is important to reach the required shape without flaws, such as wrinkles.An experimental approach is developed to investigate the intra- (within the layer) and interply deformation. The intraply deformation properties are registered by the use of a bias-extension test and a digital image correlation (DIC) equipment. To measure the interlaminar (between the layers) friction in the prepreg/prepreg interface a specialized rig is designed and built.The two tested materials are Cycom® HTA/977-2 from Cytec and HexPly® T700/M21 from Hexel, which are examples of the second and third generation of carbon fibre/epoxy prepreg. Where M21 includes craze stoppers in form of thermoplastic particles, the 977-2 has the same function but in melted stage. These particles seem to influence both the intraply deformation modes and increase the level of friction between layers.The results from the bias-extension test was compared with the theory of pin-jointed net (PJN) and it was found that M21 behaves accordingly. The measured rotation for 977-2 is less than the theoretical, this due to slippage. The rate of deformation seems to have an influence not only on the load level, but also in the mode of deformation. Both for the interlaminar and intraply deformation the resistance to motion were much larger for M21 than 977-2.
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| 29. |
- Mellin, Pelle, 1985-, et al.
(författare)
-
Nano-sized by-products from metal 3D printing, composite manufacturing and fabric production
- 2016
-
Ingår i: Journal of Cleaner Production. - Sweden : Elsevier. - 0959-6526 .- 1879-1786. ; 139, s. 1224-1233
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Recently, the health and environmental perspective of nano-materials has gained attention. Most previous work focused on Engineered Nanoparticles (ENP). This paper examines some recently introduced production routes in terms of generated nano-sized by-products. A discussion on the hazards of emitting such particles and fibers is included. Fine by-products were found in recycled metal powder after 3D printing by Selective Laser Melting (SLM). The process somehow generated small round metal particles (~1e2 mm) that are possibly carcinogenic and respirable, but not small enough to enter by skin-absorption. With preventive measures like closed handling and masks, any health related effects can be prevented. The composite manufacturing in particular generated ceramic and carbonaceous particles that are very small and respirable but do not appear to be intrinsically toxic. The smallest features in agglomerates were about 30 nm. Small particles and fibers that were not attached in agglomerates were found in a wide range of sizes, from 1 μm and upwards. Preventive measures like closed handling and masks are strongly recommended. In contrast, the more traditional production route of fabric production is investigated. Here, brushing residue and recycled wool from fabric production contained few nano-sized by-products.
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| 30. |
- Monti, Marco, et al.
(författare)
-
Fire reaction of nanoclay-doped PA6 composites reinforced with continuous glass fibers and produced by commingling technique
- 2015
-
Ingår i: Polymer degradation and stability. - : Elsevier Ltd. - 0141-3910 .- 1873-2321. ; 121, s. 1-10
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In this paper, we report the development of a glass fiber commingled composite (GFCC) based on a nanoclay-doped polyamide 6 (PA6) and the evaluation of its fire reaction. The preparation of the composite comprised several steps. Firstly, the nanoclay was dispersed in the PA6 matrix. Then, the produced compound was spun in filaments and commingled with continuous glass fibers. Finally, the laminate preform was consolidated. Reference samples based on the neat PA6 were produced as well. As a results, although it is well known that, in the presence of a relevant amount of continuous fibers, the behavior of the material is mainly driven by the fibers themselves (e.g. mechanical, thermal, conductive, and so on), the effect of the clay was interesting, especially in flammability test (UL94 vertical burning test), where the total burning time passes from 227 s to 146 s.
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| 31. |
- Monti, Marco, et al.
(författare)
-
Montmorillonite-doped commingled composites for improved fire performance
- 2014
-
Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- In this paper, we report the development of a glass fiber commingled composite (GFCC) based on a nanoclay-doped polyamide 6 (PA6) and the evaluation of its combustion behavior. The preparation of the composite has involved several steps. Firstly the nanoclay was dispersed in the PA6 matrix. Then, the produced compound was spun in filaments and commingled with glass fibers. Finally, the laminate preform was consolidated. In order to evaluate the effect of the nanoclay on the combustion behavior of the GFCC, samples based on the neat PA6 were produced as well. The results show that the effect of the nanocomposite matrix was a significant improvement regarding heat release when a continuous external heat flux is applied (cone calorimeter), whereas in the presence of the glass fibers the positive effect is more pronounced in tests where a small flame is induced to ignite the vertically oriented sample (UL94 vertical burning test). This is connected to the different mechanisms by which the nanoclay affects the combustion behavior, whether in the presence of glass fibers or not.
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| 32. |
- Nordlund, Markus, et al.
(författare)
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Particle deposition mechanisms during processing of advanced composite materials
- 2007
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Ingår i: Composites. Part A, Applied science and manufacturing. - : Elsevier BV. - 1359-835X .- 1878-5840. ; 38:10, s. 2182-2193
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Liquid composite moulding of advanced composite materials often comprises infiltration of a particle-filled resin into a multi-scale porous fabric. These injections/infusions are subject to severe particle depositions inside the reinforcement, leading to undesired inhomogeneous mechanical and functional properties. Hence, the mechanisms for particle depositions are investigated by detailed meso-scale experiments, analysed by microscopic imaging and micro-particle image velocimetry, and macroscopic infusions of a biaxial non-crimp fabric. It is shown that two main particle deposition mechanisms are filtration during fibre bundle impregnation and filtration induced by stationary flow through fibre bundles. It is also clarified where in the reinforcement the particles will deposit. Finally, a number of suggestions on how to process advanced composite materials with a more homogeneous particle distribution are launched. © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 33. |
- Nunes, Stephanie Goncalves, et al.
(författare)
-
Does the viscoelastic behavior of fully cured epoxy depend on the thermal history during curing?
- 2022
-
Ingår i: Journal of composite materials. - : Sage Publications. - 0021-9983 .- 1530-793X. ; 56:22, s. 3439-3453
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Residual strains and shape distortions in a polymer-based composite structure may depend on the cure schedule used for manufacture. Aiming to understand the cure history effects, the influence of the curing “path” (time tc and temperature Tc path during curing) on viscoelastic (VE) response of a fully cured (FC) (alpha = 0.992) epoxy was investigated. Five different “families” of the same epoxy were manufactured in constraint-free conditions using different sets of curing parameters. Then, tensile tests were performed at different temperatures (T = 30 to 110 °C), and the time-temperature superposition principle (TTSP) and Schapery’s type of linear viscoelastic (VE) model, accounting for physical aging of specimens tested at high temperature, were used. The results show that the VE properties of the studied epoxy are independent of the curing history provided that at the end all specimens are fully cured. Also, the physical aging rate at high temperatures of all “families” is the same and it can be described by a simple aging-temperature independent equation reported in Nunes et al1 It is expected that curing history of unconstrained and fully cured epoxy has an insignificant effect on final viscoelastic behavior, a knowledge which could assist in developing more time and cost-efficient cure cycles.
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| 34. |
- Nunes, Stephanie Goncalves, et al.
(författare)
-
On Temperature-Related Shift Factors and Master Curves in Viscoelastic Constitutive Models for Thermoset Polymers
- 2020
-
Ingår i: Mechanics of composite materials. - : Springer. - 0191-5665 .- 1573-8922. ; 56:5, s. 573-590
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Reliable accelerated testing routines involving tests at enhanced temperatures are of paramount importance in developing viscoelastic models for polymers. The theoretical basis, the time-temperature superposition (TTS) principle, is used to construct master curves and temperature-dependent shift factor, which is the necessary information to simulate the material response in arbitrary temperature and strain regimes. The Dynamic Mechanical and Thermal Analysis (DMTA) TTS mode, being one of the most promising approaches in terms of time efficiency and maturity of the software, is compared in this paper with macrotests at enhanced temperatures in their ability to give reliable master curves. It is shown, comparing simulations with test data for a chosen epoxy polymer, that none of the three DMTA TTS mode-based attempts used (at different temperature steps during frequency scanning) was successful in predicting the epoxy behavior in tests. On the contrary, using one-hour macrotests at enhanced temperatures gives a viscoelastic model with a very good predicting accuracy. Simulations were performed using an incremental formulation of the previously published VisCoR model for linear viscoelastic materials.
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| 35. |
- Nunes, Stephanie, et al.
(författare)
-
Physical aging effect on viscoelastic behavior of polymers
- 2022
-
Ingår i: Composites Part C: Open Access. - : Elsevier. - 2666-6820. ; 7
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The effect of physical aging on the viscoelastic (VE) behavior of epoxy resin is investigated experimentally performing strain-controlled tests at various temperatures on specimens aged at different temperatures (TA) for different times (tA). The aging effect is analyzed using as a framework Schapery's type of thermo-aging-rheologically simple (T-A-R simple) VE model that contains aging-state and test-temperature dependent shift factor. Experiments show that in first approximation, the shift factor can be presented as the product of aging related shift factor aA and temperature related factor aT. It is found that for short aging times the change rate of the aging shift factor with tA does not depend on TA, whereas for long tA at high TA the rate increases. Shift factors alone are not able to explain differences in relaxation curves for almost “fully” aged specimens aged at different high TA, It is shown that a T-A-R complex VE model with two additional aging-dependent functions can describe the observed discrepancies.
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| 36. |
- Oldenbo, M., et al.
(författare)
-
Mechanical behaviour of SMC composites with toughening and low density additives
- 2003
-
Ingår i: Composites. Part A, Applied science and manufacturing. - 1359-835X .- 1878-5840. ; 34:9, s. 875-885
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- A new type of SMC material (Flex-SMC) developed for automotive exterior body panels has been investigated. Flex-SMC contains hollow glass micro-spheres and thermoplastic toughening additives. A conventional SMC (Std-SMC) was used as a reference material. Materials were tested in monotonic tension and compression. Stiffness degradation with strain as well as fracture toughness was determined. In situ SEM was used to study failure mechanisms. Flex-SMC has a density almost 20% lower than Std-SMC and has higher impact resistance. The damage threshold strain of the Flex-SMCs is higher than for Std-SMC. Flex-SMCs have more than twice the fracture toughness of Std-SMC. The major reason identified is that Flex-SMCs shows extensive fibre pullout. © 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 37. |
- Pakkam Gabriel, Vivek Richards
(författare)
-
Analysis of transverse cracking in cross-ply laminates: Weibull distribution based approach
- 2022
-
Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Fiber reinforced polymer composite laminates make up more than 50% of modern aircrafts. Such composite laminates are exposed to various environmental and in-service thermo-mechanical load conditions. Transverse/intralaminar cracking is usually the first form of damage appears in a composite laminate and they tend to increase in number during the service life. The growth in number of these cracks significantly degrades the thermo-elastic properties of the composite laminate and eventually leads to final failure. Thus, it is important to predict the crack density (number of cracks per unit length) growth in both non-interactive crack density region and interactive crack density region and its effect in thermo-elastic properties degradation. Non-interactive crack density region is the region where the cracks are far apart and stress perturbation between cracks do not overlap. Interactive crack density region is where the cracks are close to each other and stress perturbation between cracks overlaps and affects the formation of new cracks. In this study, transverse cracks in thick Glass Fiber Epoxy (GF/EP) cross-ply composite laminates under quasi-static tensile loading and tension-tension fatigue loading have been analyzed and predicted.In the first paper attached here, increase in number of transverse cracks in GF/EP cross-ply laminates under quasi-static tensile loading at room temperature (RT) are analyzed using 2 material systems. The failure stress distribution in 90° plies of the laminates is defined by Weibull distribution and the Weibull parameters are determined from crack density versus applied thermo-mechanical transverse stress in 90° layer (σTCLT) data points within the non-interactive crack density region. The crack density growth is then predicted versus the σTCLT and applied mechanical strain in the laminate from the determined Weibull parameters using Monte Carlo method and the stress distribution models between adjacent cracks. The predicted results using the novel stress distribution model introduced here were in good agreement with the non-interactive and interactive crack density regions of test results. The importance of using the Monte Carlo method and novel stress distribution model to predict the whole crack density region have been emphasized in the article, in addition to that it also redefined the interval of non-interactive crack density region. The second paper expands the concept from the first paper, to address the tension-tension fatigue loading at RT. It deals with the crack density analysis and prediction in [0/90]s GF/EP laminate under fatigue loading at RT. The fatigue tests were performed at 3 maximum stress levels. Here the Weibull parameters were determined from the data points within the non-interactive crack density region in quasi-static and fatigue loading. From the determined Weibull parameters of each stress level and using Monte Carlo method and the novel stress distribution model, the crack density versus the number of fatigue cycles were predicted and in good agreement with the fatigue test results at the respective stress level. The intention here was to use Weibull parameters of one stress level to predict crack density at arbitrary stress levels. Based on it, the predicted results were not sufficiently good and suggested to revisit the Weibull parameter determination by performing fatigue tests at two stress levels. In the attached paper 3, new methodology on crack density growth simulation and Weibull parameter determination in tension-tension fatigue loading has been developed. In the newly developed methodology, in detailed fatigue tests are performed at one maximum stress level to obtain all data points and at higher stress level to obtain one data point that is a crack density data point at certain number of cycles to determine Weibull parameters. Using the determined Weibull parameters from non-interactive crack density region, the whole crack density region was successfully predicted for other stress levels.
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| 38. |
- Pakkam Gabriel, Vivek Richards, et al.
(författare)
-
Effect of heat treatment and test temperature on transverse cracking in tensile loading
- 2024
-
Ingår i: Composites. Part A, Applied science and manufacturing. - : Elsevier. - 1359-835X .- 1878-5840. ; 181
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Accumulation of transverse cracks in carbon fiber heat resistant polymer (with bismaleimide formulation) cross-ply laminates during tensile loading at elevated temperatures and after long heat treatment is analysed. Data shows that both the iso-thermal heat treatment and testing at elevated temperatures reduce the transverse cracking resistance. A two-parameter Weibull failure stress distribution model with scale parameter degrading with heat treatment and elevated temperature is used for crack initiation analysis. The degradation is described by polynomial expansion including interaction terms. Data shows that the scale parameter dependence on the heat treatment time and the test temperature is rather linear. The same expansion parameters have been successfully used for laminates with the same constituents but with a different layup and fiber content.
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| 39. |
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| 40. |
- Pakkam Gabriel, Vivek Richards, et al.
(författare)
-
Equivalent stress concept to account for the effect of local cyclic stress ratio on transverse cracking in tension–tension fatigue
- 2024
-
Ingår i: International Journal of Fatigue. - : Elsevier. - 0142-1123 .- 1879-3452. ; 187
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Presented test results on transverse cracking in cross-ply laminates upon tension–tension cyclic loading show that the increase of crack density depends not only on the maximum transverse stress in the cycle but also on the local cyclic stress ratio RTloc in the analyzed layer. To include the effect of the RTloc in the model with statistical failure stress distribution for crack initiation (based on Weibull distribution) adapted for fatigue, an equivalent stress is introduced in a similar manner as the equivalent strain energy release rate has been used for delamination crack propagation. The equivalent stress in the layer is defined as a power function of the maximum stress and the stress ratio in the layer. It was found, testing laminates with two different fiber contents that higher the local stress ratio in 90-layer, higher the transverse cracking resistance. Transverse crack density simulation using the developed equivalent stress model has been validated against test results.
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| 41. |
- Pakkam Gabriel, Vivek Richards, et al.
(författare)
-
Fatigue Damage Model of High Temperature Polymer Composites in Aero-Engines
- 2022
-
Ingår i: ICAS Proceedings 33rd Congress of the International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden. - : The International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences. ; , s. 3805-3812
-
Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- High Temperature Polymer Cross-ply (HTPC) laminate specimens are subjected to tension-tension fatigue loading at 3 different maximum stress levels at room temperature. Transverse cracking in 90° layer in the crossply laminate upon fatigue tests is analyzed. Based on probabilistic approach, using Weibull distribution, a prediction model for the increase in number of transverse cracks upon fatigue loading at different stress levelsis developed. The predicted crack density (number of cracks per unit length) development shows good agreement with the test results for fatigue at the higher stress levels considered. A slight overprediction is observed at lowest stress level.
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| 42. |
- Pakkam Gabriel, Vivek Richards, et al.
(författare)
-
Methodology for transverse cracking simulation in 90 plies of composite laminate under fatigue loading
- 2022
-
Ingår i: ECCM 2022 - Proceedings of the 20th European Conference on Composite Materials. - : EPFL Lausanne, Composite Construction Laboratory. ; , s. 16-22, s. 16-22
-
Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Methodology for crack density evolution simulation in tension-tension fatigue and parameter determination in a model that relies on failure stress distribution (Weibull) in the 90 ply is presented. Cyclic loading is performed at one stress level to obtain detailed crack density dependence on the number of cycles. In addition, one data point (crack density at specified number of cycles) is necessary at a different stress level. Non-interactive crack density region is used to determine Weibull parameters. Then, crack density in a whole crack density range and for arbitrary stress level is predicted using the obtained Weibull parameters, the Monte Carlo method for failure stress distribution and a novel model for stress distribution between cracks. The predictions are in good agreement with test results.
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| 43. |
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| 44. |
- Pakkam Gabriel, Vivek Richards, et al.
(författare)
-
Transverse Cracking Characterization and Prediction in Heat Treated Polymer Composites under Quasi-Static Tensile Loading at Elevated Temperature
- 2022
-
Ingår i: ECCM 2022 - Proceedings of the 20th European Conference on Composite Materials. - : EPFL Lausanne, Composite Construction Laboratory. ; , s. 23-30
-
Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Transverse cracking in high temperature polymer cross-ply composite laminate was experimentally studied. In the tests, pristine as well as heat treated cross-ply laminate specimens were subjected to quasi-static tensile loading at room temperature and 150°C. Microscopy studies revealed that manufacturing induced transverse cracks were present in 90° layer of pristine cross-ply laminates. An increase in number of transverse cracks were observed after the heat treatment. Transverse crack density (number of cracks/unit length) growth upon applied thermo-mechanical transverse stress in 90° layer was analyzed using 3-parameter Weibull failure stress distribution. The Weibull location parameter, in efforts to address the influence of temperature and heat treatment of crack density growth, is modified based on empirical data. The predicted results were in good agreement with the test results.
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| 45. |
- Pakkam Gabriel, Vivek Richards, 1995-
(författare)
-
Transverse cracking in cross-ply composites during static and fatigue loading at different temperatures
- 2024
-
Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Polymer composite laminates are preferred in many load bearing applications for its tailorable mechanical properties while offering light-weight solution, corrosive resistance etc. Hence, polymer composites are attractive material choice for aircraft manufacturers to reduce weight and emissions. However, one of the challenges existing in composite laminates is accumulation of damage before final failure, that reduces mechanical properties of the composite laminates during service life. Hence it is crucial to develop a reliable model to predict damage and consequently mechanical properties degradation. The thesis focuses on transverse/intralaminar cracks, that are the first form of damage to appear in off-axis layers of composite laminates when subjected to tensile load and they increase in number with increase in load. Transverse crack growth in numbers was analyzed in terms of transverse crack density (= number of cracks / observed length) growth. Appended papers present methodologies developed using statistical transverse failure stress distribution approach to predict the transverse crack density growth when composite laminates subjected to quasi-static tensile and tension-tension fatigue loading at different temperatures. For that purpose, continuous fibers reinforced polymer composite cross-ply laminates containing different material systems were manufactured, and damage growth was studied in 90-layer in coupon scale specimens. In static tests, the crack density growth in specimens were analyzed against the thermo-mechanical transverse stress in the 90-layer. Distribution of transverse failure stress to initiate a crack along the transverse direction of the layer has been defined using 2 parameter Weibull distribution model. Paper 1 presents, methodology to predict crack density growth, using probability of failure stress distribution (based on Weibull model) in Monte Carlo simulation along with the developed stress distribution model between cracks, in specimens tested at room temperature (RT). The crack density was well predicted in both non-interactive and interactive crack density region using improved Weibull parameter determination routine. The presented Weibull model was extended to address the effect of iso-thermal heat treatment and test temperature in Paper 4. It was observed that both heat treatment and elevated test temperatures, in general, resulted in reduction of transverse cracking resistance. The effect of heat treatment and test temperature on transverse cracking was modelled as Weibull scale parameter dependency using polynomial expression. The developed model was validated against laminates with same material system but with different layups and fiber content.Fatigue tests were performed at different maximum stress levels and at RT and 150℃. Crack density growth was analyzed against number of fatigue cycles. The observed decrease in resistance to transverse cracking with every cycle of load was interpreted as monotonic decrease of Weibull scale parameter. Simple power function with respect to number of cycles was proposed to decrease the scale parameter. Paper 2 presents, fatigue test results at RT and methodology to predict crack density growth in different fatigue stress levels. The methodology, using maximum local transverse stress in a fatigue cycle in Weibull model and the Weibull parameters determined at a reference fatigue stress level, was limited in ability to predict the crack density growth at other stress levels. It was then found that the crack density growth not only depends on maximum local stress in a fatigue cycle, but also on the local stress ratio in the 90-layer, presented in Paper 3. Wherein, an equivalent stress was introduced to replace maximum local stress in Weibull model by addressing the combined effect of maximum local stress in a cycle and also the local stress ratio. Equivalent stress model was validated across different layups and fiber content with same material system. Paper 5 presents fatigue test results at different stress levels and temperatures. It was found that in fatigue tests at 150℃, in spite of lower thermal stress, crack density growth was more rapid than for RT fatigue tests. Methodology to predict crack density growth in 150℃ fatigue tests by combining the analytical model with the equivalent stress and with enhanced test temperature effect has been presented.
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| 46. |
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| 47. |
- Petkov, Valeri, et al.
(författare)
-
Assessment of the Properties of two High-Temperature Thermosetting Polyimides
- 2022
-
Ingår i: ECCM 2022 - Proceedings of the 20th European Conference on Composite Materials. - : EPFL Lausanne, Composite Construction Laboratory. ; , s. 8-15
-
Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- A novel thermosetting polyimide, NEXIMID R300, is introduced and compared with the commercial MHT-R in terms of fracture toughness, thermal properties and ageing behaviour. The new R300 formulation has an altered chemical composition compared to the MHT-R, resulting in a reduced cross-linking density, and was presented as a less susceptible to cracking and a more processable alternative during composite manufacturing with resin transfer moulding. The study uses fracture toughness with single edge notched beam setup, DSC, dilatometry, weight loss measurements and optical microscopy for investigation of the neat resin properties of both material. A slight increase in fracture toughness and a decrease in glass transition temperature for the R300 formulation is observed.
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| 48. |
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| 49. |
- Petkov, Valeri Ivanov
(författare)
-
Characterisation of thermally induced degradation of high-temperature polymers and composites
- 2024
-
Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This project aimed to broaden the knowledge of high-temperature polymers and composites when exposed to elevated temperatures and an oxygen-containing atmosphere. The main accent has been on thermosetting polyimide resins reinforced with carbon fibers. When subjected to harsh atmospheric conditions, such as elevated temperatures and oxygen, polymer resins can undergo thermo-oxidative degradation, often resulting in weight loss and a surface layer with altered properties. High-temperature composites could experience such environments during operation. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how exposure to it could affect their performance. To simulate such an environment in the lab, the materials are aged in a controlled manner in a furnace or other equipment. The ageing of polyimide composites in this project was often performed at temperatures at or above 288 degrees Celsius for extended periods of up to 1500 hours.The first part of the project, and the first article, delved into the effect of different layups and thicknesses of the carbon fiber bundles on the thermo-oxidative behaviour of two composite materials made with the same thermosetting polyimide. Modelling the desorption during the initial stages of the ageing, showed that it exhibited a Fickian behaviour. X-ray computed tomography experiments were used to investigate the ageing behaviour of the materials and revealed that the satin weave composite formed a network of cracks, voids, and delaminations, that progressed with the ageing time, while the damage in the material made of thin plies was in the form of delaminations at the edges. The analysis of the tomographic datasets was performed using Otsu’s thresholding method for semantic segmentation of the defects within the materials.In an attempt to counter the crack formation on the surface of the satin weave composite observed during the first study, a new polyimide formulation was developed by the manufacturer. The amount of internal crosslinkers was reduced, aiming to increase the toughness of the resin after curing. The second article compares neat resin samples of the original and newly developed formulations with the help of a three-point bending test, differential scanning calorimetry, dilatometry, weight loss, light optical microscopy and nanoindentation experiments. Samples were aged up to 1500 hours in ambient air. The results showed that while there were hints of a slight increase in the fracture toughness of the new formulation, the glass transition temperature had decreased, compared to the original resin.The two formulations were further investigated and compared with the help of thermogravimetric analysis in the fourth paper. Experiments were performed in isothermal and non-isothermal conditions for more robust results. It was found that the thermal oxidation of the two materials follows an autocatalytic model. The study highlights the importance of using both isothermal and non-isothermal data in the pursuit of more precise and robust analysis and modelling of the thermal oxidation of high-temperature polymers. Based on the results, a diagram, predicting the weight loss at specific times and temperatures, was created for each material.An alternative way of studying crack formation within challenging polymer composite tomographic datasets was presented in the fourth article. Instead of using a thresholding method, such as thepreviously used Otsu’s in the first study, in this case, a deep learning model was applied to the datasets to follow the progressive micro-cracking within the composite during a series of thermo-mechanical loadings. In contrast to a global thresholding method, which segments all defects within the dataset, the deep learning model, Attention U-Net, made it possible to create a more straightforward and robust way of performing segmentation on transverse cracks. The model was compared to and outperformed both Otsu’s method and a conventional U-Net.The previously developed methodology for semantic segmentation and the obtained results on transverse cracks were applied in a practical case in the fifth article, where the developed damage prediction model assumes that transverse cracks in thick plies span through the whole width of the specimen. The tomography and deep learning methodology helped shed light on the nature of the cracks and showed that previous assumptions, based on edge observation with light optical microscopy, should be taken as a conservative estimation.
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| 50. |
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