| 1. |
- Arias, Silvia, et al.
(författare)
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An experiment on ascending evacuation on a long, stationary escalator
- 2016
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Ingår i: Interflam 2016.
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Ascending evacuation is becoming more relevant with underground stations reaching increasing depths. Therefore there is need for better understanding of the effects of physical exertion during evacuation. An experiment was conducted in a 61 m long, stationary escalator in Stockholm (Sweden) in order to obtain data on walking speeds, resting and behavior, which consisted on measuring the walking speed and gathering data about the perceived exertion of test participants walking up the escalator. The walking speeds of 29 single individuals and a group of 21 individuals were obtained. The results showed that people decrease their walking speed with the height, and some of them need to take breaks along the climb. No clear influence of background participants’ variables was found on the results. In the group experiment, the slower people had an impact on the walking speed of others due to the reduced space between them at the beginning of the climb. However, the slower participants gradually move to the right hand of the escalator to allow overtaking on the left hand side, and the faster ones could move at their preferred speed. This behavior is similar that observed during regular use of escalators.
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| 2. |
- Delin, Mattias, et al.
(författare)
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Ascending evacuation - Walking speed in stairs as a function of height
- 2015
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Ingår i: Human Behaviour in fire : 6th International Symposium - 6th International Symposium. - 9780993393303 ; , s. 155-160
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- During ascending evacuation in long stairs, there is reason to believe that factors such as fatigue, and change in human behaviour will influence the possibility of satisfactory evacuation and affect the ascending walking speed. Based on these assumption, a 2-year research project was initiated at Lund University. This paper gives a brief description of the project and highlight some initial findings according ascending walking speed and effects of fatigue.
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| 3. |
- Delin, Mattias, et al.
(författare)
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Ascending stair evacuation : walking speed as a function of height
- 2017
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Ingår i: Fire and Materials. - : Wiley. - 0308-0501 .- 1099-1018. ; 41:5, s. 514-534
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- There is reason to believe that factors such as physical exertion and behavioural changes will influence the ascending walking speed and ultimately the possibility of satisfactory evacuation. To study these effects, a 2-year research project was initiated with the focus on effects of physical exertion on walking speeds, physiological performance and behaviours during long ascending evacuations. Two sets of experiments on human performance during ascending long stairs, with a height of 48 and 109 m, were performed. The results include aspects such as walking speeds, physical exertion (oxygen consumption, heart rates and electromyography data), perceived exertion and behavioural changes, showing that physical work capacity affects walking speeds in case of long ascending evacuation and should be considered while using long ascending evacuation. Analysis of both walking and vertical speeds is recommended because it provides additional insights on the impact of stair configuration on vertical displacement and the importance of not using the same value for walking speed for different stairs because the design of the stairs has an impact. The novel datasets presented in this paper are deemed to provide useful information for fire safety engineers both for assisting fire safety design as well as the calibration of evacuation modelling tools.
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| 4. |
- Frantzich, Håkan, et al.
(författare)
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Positionering av människor i väg- och järnvägstunnlar i händelse av brand
- 2023
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The overall aim of the current project is to investigate the possibility of using people's mobile phones to locate people in a tunnel environment, both during normal operation and during an emergency. As part of the project, a technology for locating people based on Wi-Fi communication between access points in a tunnel and the user's mobile phone is investigated. To examine the precision of the localization system, 39 different trials have been carried out under various conditions during an experiment in a road tunnel in Stockholm, Sweden. In the tests, the Wi-Fi-based predicted location has been compared with the actual location, for each time step, of the people in the tunnel. The variables changed in the experiment include the number of people in a group, the number of available access points in the tunnel, whether the mobile phone distinguishes between an active or passive connection, whether it differs between a person moving or standing still, whether the mobile phone is held in the hand or is stored in the person's pocket and if there are obstacles in the tunnel (a vehicle). The results indicate that the mean value for the distance between actual and predicted position is in the order of 20 m or less. The variation in distance for a single individual is relatively large and the standard deviation for the mean distance is in the same order of magnitude as the mean value. Despite this, there is a good potential to locate individuals in a tunnel as the distance between emergency exits is often much longer than the uncertainties in the predicted locations of people. Also, the technology seems be able to predict the direction of movement for the individuals. These results are promising and indicates the potential of cost-efficient improvement of tunnel safety both for existing and new tunnels. With a refined positioning system, there is potential for further improved ability to locate individuals in a tunnel fire environment with this technology.
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| 5. |
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| 6. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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Delrapport: Test av vägledande system i en tunnel
- 2014
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- I följande delrapport redogörs övergripande för förutsättningarna och delar av resultaten efter ett utrymningsförsök som genomfördes den 1-3 juli år 2014 i vägtunneln Norra länken i Stockholm. Syftet med försöket var i huvudsak att undersöka hur personer på bästa sätt kan ledas till en motstående tunnelvägg med utrymningsvägar i en rökfylld tunnel. Försöket syftade även till att kvantifiera med vilken hastighet människor rör sig i rökfyllda tunnelmiljöer (d v s vid nedsatta siktförhållanden). Baserat på en grov analys av de resultat som genererades under försöket kan det konstateras att designen av den utrymningsportal som användes under försöket till stor del verkar ha uppfyllt sitt ändamål (att få folk att använda nödutgångar i rökfyllda tunnelmiljöer). Det mest påtagliga resultatet är att det krävs någon form av vägledning för att personer som går längs den högra sidan ska förstå att de ska byta sida i höjd med utrymningsportalen. Åtminstone bör informationsskyltar installeras mittemot utrymningsvägarna för att upplysa utrymmande personer om att de befinner mittemot en utrymningsväg. Flera av försökspersonerna angav även att de utrymningsskyltar med information om avståndet till närmaste utrymningsväg var värdefulla. Det angav även flera av de personer som inte exponerades för denna typ av vägledande markeringar men istället som ett förslag för att få en bra utrymningsmiljö. För att ytterligare öka sannolikheten att människor vid en utrymning uppmärksammar och använder utrymningsvägarna föreslås att utrymningsportalerna även utrustas med aktiva högtalare. Flera av försökspersonerna som exponerades för denna installation uppgav att de hade nytta av den för att hitta utgången på den motsatta sidan.
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| 7. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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Evacuation in Underground Rail Transportation Systems: A Summary of the Findings of the METRO Project
- 2014
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Ingår i: Proceedings from the Sixth International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security, Marseille, France, March 12-14, 2014. - 0284-5172. - 9789187461521 ; , s. 485-494
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The paper presents the major findings from the three evacuation experiments being part of the Swedish METRO research project. In the evacuation experiments; the small, medium and full-scale experiments, investigations were carried out with the purpose to study how train passengers safely can be evacuated in case of a fire emergency. In addition to determine flow rates, the walking velocity and walking patterns were determined for in a smokefilled environment and in non-smoke conditions. It was also concluded that the introduction of a loudspeaker above the emergency exit, which broadcasted an alternating alarm signal and pre-recorded voice message, was successful.The reader is referred to the original publications for more details on experimental procedures, research findings and recommendations for projects.
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| 8. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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Evacuation of a Metro Train in an Underground Rail Transportation System : Flow Rate Capacity of Train Exits, Tunnel Walking Speeds and Exit Choice
- 2015
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Ingår i: Fire technology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0015-2684 .- 1572-8099. ; 52:5, s. 1481-1518
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Including in total 135 participants in the ages 19–69 years (recruited from the general public), an unannounced full-scale field evacuation experiment was performed in the Stockholm underground metro system on the night between October 17 and 18, 2014. The purpose was to collect data on the flow rate of people in train exits during the evacuation of a train in a tunnel and on the walking speed of people when moving long distances on an uneven surface in a tunnel, and to study exit choice and behaviour during an evacuation. Consequently, the experiment involved the evacuation of a rail car (a Bombardier C20 train) in a tunnel as well as the subsequent evacuation of the tunnel itself; the latter meant that the participants either could evacuate to the closest station (~400 m) or to an available emergency exit (~200 m). Among other things, the experiment demonstrated that the averaged flow rates of people in the train exits varied between 0.19 p/s and 0.22 p/s (0.14–0.16 p/m s when considering the train exit width of 1.4 m) and that the averaged walking speeds in the tunnel varied between 1.1 m/s and 1.2 m/s (no smoke present). Furthermore, all 135 participants found and used the available emergency exit, which had been equipped with a technical system consisting of a loudspeaker that broadcasted a combined alarm signal and a pre-recorded voice message.
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| 9. |
- Fridolf, Karl
(författare)
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Evacuation of a Smoke Filled Tunnel: Human Behaviour, Movement Speed and Exit Choice
- 2013
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The report focuses on an evacuation experiment, which was performed within the second work package of the Swedish METRO project. The experiment involved 100 participants, both men and women in the ages 18-66 years, who individually evacuated a smoke-filled rail tunnel of approximately 200 metres length. The main purpose of the experiment was to collect and derive data on human behaviour and movement speeds, and to study the effectiveness of different technical emergency exit installations, systems and designs. In the report, an extensive description of the set-up, design and execution of the experiment is given. In addition, a thorough account of the analysis and outcome of the analysis is presented. Finally, a discussion is made and general recommendations and conclusions are presented.
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| 10. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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Fire Evacuation in Underground Transportation Systems: A Review of Accidents and Empirical Research
- 2013
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Ingår i: Fire Technology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0015-2684 .- 1572-8099. ; 49:2, s. 451-475
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Previous fire accidents have shown that fires in underground transportation systems, e.g., tunnels and underground stations, can cause many fatalities. It is therefore important in fire safety design to give adequate consideration to all aspects related to evacuation. The main purpose of this paper is to provide guidance to engineers involved in the design of underground transportation systems, and to create a basis for future research in the area. A review of previously reported fire accidents and of empirical research is performed. The review of accidents is based on a theoretical framework, namely four accepted human behaviour theories, which can be used in the fire safety design of underground transportation systems. Factors important for fire evacuation in these types of facilities are also presented, and data related to these factors are summarised. The review reveals many potential solutions to commonly observed evacuation problems, but it also shows that there is room for further future research in the area.
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| 11. |
- Fridolf, Karl
(författare)
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Fire evacuation in underground transportation systems: a review of accidents and research
- 2010
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- A review of literature related to fire evacuation in underground transportation systems, e.g., tunnels and subway stations, was carried out with the objectives (1) to identify a theoretical framework that can help understand of human behaviour in the event of a fire in underground transportation systems, (2) to use the theoretical framework to analyse and to identify problems related to fire evacuation in underground transportation systems, and (3) to suggest areas on which future research should focus on in. The review included literature on past accidents in underground transportation systems, theories and models on human behaviour in fire, and empirical research. It was concluded that the adoption of a clear theoretical framework can aid the understanding of people’s behaviour in the event of a fire in underground transportation systems, and that a behaviour that seems irrational to an outside observer seldom is. The theoretical framework should include the behaviour sequence model, the affiliative model, social influence, and the theory of affordances. It was also concluded that one of the major issues related to fire evacuation in underground transportation systems is that people often are reluctant to initiate evacuation, which among other things is explained with a role keeping behaviour, lack of information, ambiguity of fire cues and the presence of others, i.e., social influence. Other factors that affect the actual movement of people in underground transportation systems were identified as problems with the door-opening mechanisms on trains, the vertical distance between train and tunnel floor, that people tend to evacuate through familiar exits, the lack of lighting, and uneven surfaces inside tunnels. The review demonstrated that there are room for improvements in the area of fire evacuation in underground transportation systems, and future research should among other things study the effects of a comprehensive evacuation system, the optimal design of active systems in underground transportation systems, and the possibility for people with disabilities to evacuate from these types of facilities.
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| 12. |
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| 13. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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Fire Protection of Underground Transportation Systems: A Decision Support Tool for Designers and Rescue Services
- 2014
-
Ingår i: [Host publication title missing].
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The increasing trend to build both more and longer underground transportation systems, e.g., road and rail tunnels, and the special characteristics of these facilities, introduces new problem areas to both fire safety designers and fire rescue services. TUFT, a simple computer model, has therefore been developed partly to aid fire safety designers in the early stages of the fire safety design process, and partly to aid fire rescue services in their planning and training for efficient operations in underground facilities. The model has the capability of simulating the fire dynamic effects of a fire in a tunnel, and to assess different evacuation and rescue operation scenarios. In this paper, the underlying principles, equations and sub models of TUFT is presented.
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| 14. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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Full Scale Tunnel Evacuation Experiment to Determine Appropriate Emergency Exit Portal Designs in Road Tunnels
- 2016
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Ingår i: Proceedings from the Seventh International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security. - 9789188349118 ; , s. 441-452
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In this paper, the execution and results of an evacuation experiment that was conducted in a road tunnel in Stockholm in 2014 is presented. The primary objective of the experiment was to evaluate the effectiveness of different emergency exit portal designs, and other technical installations/aids in the tunnel, during a fire evacuation in smoke. Based on the results, it is concluded that the emergency exit portal design, which was developed and evaluated prior to the experiment, seems appropriate for the intended use. However, in order to increase the portal may be complemented with information signs on the wall opposite to the exit, way-finding signs including distances to the closest emergency exits on both tunnel walls, and a loudspeaker installation that can inform evacuating people about the location of the available exits.
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| 15. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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Indoor Localization for Fire Safety : A brief overview of fundamentals, needs and requirements and applications
- 2020
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- An indoor localization system for positioning evacuating people can be anticipated to increase the chances of a safe evacuation and effective rescue intervention in case of a tunnel fire. Such a system may utilize prevalent wireless technologies, e.g., Bluetooth, RFID and Wi-Fi, which today are used to survey incoming and outgoing traffic to a certain space or location, to estimate group sizes and to measure the duration of visits during normal operation of buildings. Examples also exist of where the same wireless technologies are used for safety purposes, for example to assess real-time location, tracking and monitoring of vehicles, personnel and equipment in mining environments. However, they are relatively few, and typically rely on a high degree of control over the people that are to be tracked, and their association with (connection to) the localization system used for the tracking. In this report, the results of a brief overview of the literature within the field of indoor localization in general, and the application of indoor localization systems within the field of particularly fire safety, is summarized. This information forms the underlying basis for the planning and execution of a future field study, in which an indoor Wi-Fi localization system will be tested and evaluated in terms of if, and if so how, it can be used to position evacuating people in tunnels. Whereas such a system allows digital footprints to be collected within a wireless network infrastructure (also already existing ones), questions remains to be answered regarding aspects such as precision and accuracy, and furthermore, how these aspects are affected by other independent variables. In the end of this report, examples of research questions deemed necessary to answer in order to enable a sound evaluation of the system is presented. These need to be addressed in the future planning of the above-mentioned field study.
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| 16. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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Movement speed and exit choice in smoke-filled rail tunnels
- 2013
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Ingår i: Fire Safety Journal. - : Elsevier BV. - 0379-7112. ; 59, s. 8-21
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- An evacuation experiment including 100 individuals was performed inside a tunnel in order to study the effectiveness of different way-finding installations and to collect data on movement speeds and human behaviour. The participants took part in the experiment individually, and no group interactions were studied. The experiment tunnel was 200 m long and an emergency exit was located 180 m into the tunnel. In addition, emergency signs including distances to nearest exits were located every eight meters on both sides of the tunnel. The tunnel was filled with artificial smoke and acetic acid, which produced a mean light extinction coefficient of 2.2 m−1. Participants had been told that they would participate in an evacuation experiment, but they had not been informed about the layout of the tunnel or the technical installations. The average movement speed was found to be approximately 0.9 m/s, independent of tunnel floor material examined. The experiment also demonstrated the importance of the emergency exit design. A loudspeaker, which provided people with an alarm signal and a pre-recorded voice message, was found to perform particular well in terms of attracting people to the exit, independent of which side of the tunnel the participants were following.
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| 17. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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Människors gånghastighet i rök: Förslag tillrepresentation vid brandteknisk projektering
- 2016
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- There is limited information about the behavior and movement of people in case of fireevacuation in smoke-filled environments, and there is limited guidance on how peoples’walking speed in smoke can and should be represented in the fire safety design process.In this report, a literature review within this area, and a subsequent recommendation onhow to represent walking speed in both smoke-free and smoke-filled environments ispresented. The recommendation includes three different methods to represent the peoples’walking speed in a life safety verification, depending on how the treatment ofuncertainties is done on an overall level within the analysis. Finally, in the end of thereport, a direction for future research in order to reduce the current uncertainties ispresented.
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| 18. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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People’s Subjective Estimation of Fire Growth: An Experimental Study of Young Adults
- 2011
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Ingår i: [Host publication title missing]. - 1817-4299. ; , s. 161-172
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- An experiment was carried out to examine the subjective estimation of fire growth for young adults and their perceived ability to extinguish fires. In the experiment, participants filled out a questionnaire consisting of two parts. The first part involved prediction of fire growth, and the participants were asked to estimate the times between different stages of fires. The second part involved estimation of the ability to extinguish different fires, and the participants were asked about their ability to extinguish the fires with a portable foam extinguisher. The results suggest that young adults are not very good at predicting fire growth, or the seriousness of a fire. There is a great variation in the estimations of the time lapsed between different stages of a fire, which means that the heat release rate of the fire often is greatly over- or underestimated. In predicting fire growth, no differences could be found between males and females or people with previous experience of fires. In addition, a great proportion of the test participants believed that a fire was too large to extinguish with a portable foam extinguisher when it in fact was not.
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| 19. |
- Fridolf, Karl
(författare)
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Perceived Severity of Visually Accessible Fires
- 2010
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Investigations of past fires suggest that building occupants faced with a fire have problems defining the severity of it, especially in the early stages of the fire. An experiment was therefore carried out to study people’s ability to estimate fire growth, and their perceived ability to extinguish a fire using a portable fire extinguisher. A total of 535 persons, namely 304 men and 231 women, were asked to fill out a questionnaire that was divided into three parts. In the first part the test participants were asked to estimate the time between different stages of a fire. The second part involved estimations of the own ability to extinguish a fire with a portable fire extinguisher. The third part involved general questions about age, gender and academic background. The results suggest that people in general are not very good at defining the severity of a fire when it is visually accessible. Estimations of the fire growth did not correspond very well to the actual fire growth, and a great proportion of the test participants believed that they had not been able to extinguish an extinguishable fire using a portable fire extinguisher. It is therefore argued that the perceived risk not always conforms to the real risk in a fire situation where the fire is visually accessible. The results can be used to explain why building occupants not immediately initiate evacuation in a fire situation, even when the fire is visually accessible.
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| 20. |
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| 21. |
- Fridolf, Karl
(författare)
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Rail Tunnel Evacuation
- 2015
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In this thesis, human behavior in rail tunnel fires is explored. Descriptive knowledge is presented related to the evacuation of passenger trains, and the subsequent tunnel evacuation to a safe location. More specifically, a theoretical framework that can aid the understanding of human behavior is identified, and its applicability to rail tunnels is demonstrated. In addition, new empirical data on the flow rate capacity of train exits during evacuation in rail tunnels, as well as on walking speeds in smoke free and smoke filled rail tunnels, is presented. Finally, a number of technical installations that may facilitate orientation, movement and exit choice in rail tunnels are suggested. The findings are presented in relation to previously conducted empirical studies, and a discussion is also made on how the findings can be used in application and design.
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| 22. |
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| 23. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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Taking advantage of theories and models on human behaviour in the fire safety design of underground transportation systems
- 2012
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Ingår i: [Host publication title missing]. - 0284-5172. - 9789187017261 ; , s. 619-626
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Fire accidents in underground transportation systems, e.g., tunnels and underground stations, can cause many fatalities. It is therefore important in fire safety design to give adequate consideration to all aspects related to evacuation. The paper provides a review of two previously reported fire accidents based on a theoretical framework, namely four accepted human behaviour theories. These theories provide qualitative guidance on human behaviour in the event of fire in underground transportation systems, and it is therefore argued that they need to be considered in the fire safety design of these facilities.
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| 24. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
-
Test av vägledande system i en tunnel
- 2015
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The report outlines the conditions and results of an evacuation experiments performed on 1-3 July 2014 in the Northern Link road tunnel in Stockholm. The aim was mainly to investigate how people can best be led to an opposite tunnel side during escape in a smoke-filled tunnel. The experiment also aimed to quantify the speed at which people move in smoke-filled tunnel environments (i.e. at reduced visibility conditions). Based on the analysis of the results from the experiment it can be concluded that the design of the escape portal, which was used during the experiment, seems to have fulfilled its purpose (getting people to use the emergency exits in smoke-filled tunnel environments). The most obvious result is that some form of guidance is required to get people walking along the right hand side to understand that they should change side at the height of the escape portal. At a minimum, information signs should be installed opposite the escape route to inform escaping persons that they are standing opposite an escape route. Several of the subjects also indicated that the evacuation signs with information about the distance to the nearest escape route were valuable. This was also stated by several of the people who were not exposed to this type of signs but as a suggestion to get a good evacuation environment. To further increase the likelihood that people evacuating from the Stockholm Bypass it is suggested that evacuation portals also should be equipped with active speakers. Several of the subjects who were exposed to this installation indicated that they benefited from it in finding the exit on the opposite side.
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| 25. |
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| 26. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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The Flow Rate of People during Train Evacuation in Rail Tunnels: Effects of Different Train Exit Configurations
- 2014
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Ingår i: Safety Science. - : Elsevier BV. - 0925-7535. ; 62, s. 515-529
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- An exploratory study of a train evacuation inside a tunnel was performed in order to study the effects of different train exit configurations on the flow rate of people through the exit. A total of 84 participants in the ages 18–40 years took part in the experiment, which was carried out on two separate days and involved 18 evacuation scenarios. The statistical analysis of the experiment demonstrated that the aver- age flow rate capacity of the train exit was .3 persons per second and meter (p/s m) door width, including all scenarios. Four variables related to the train exit configuration were identified to significantly affect the flow rate of people: (1) a reduction of the train exit height increased the flow rate of people with on average .026 p/s m; (2) a change of tunnel floor material from concrete to macadam increased the flow rate of people with on average .015 p/s m; (3) an emergency ladder present in the train exit reduced the flow rate of people with on average .064 p/s m; and (4) a complete failure of the lighting inside the train reduced the flow rate of people with on average .029 p/s m. In addition, qualitative observations revealed a deferential behaviour among the participants in the train, caused by the people outside the train. It is therefore believed that the population density outside the train will significantly determine the flow rate capacity of the train exit during an evacuation.
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| 27. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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The impact of smoke on walking speed
- 2014
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Ingår i: Fire and Materials. - : Wiley. - 1099-1018 .- 0308-0501. ; 38:7, s. 744-759
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In fire safety engineering, information about the expected walking speed of occupants through smoke is often one factor that is of interest to the designer. However, despite the fact that research already in the 1970s demonstrated that people tend to evacuate through smoke, little research has been performed on the topic since, and evidently, there is a lack of data on walking speed in smoke. This has created a situation where fire safety engineering assessments of the required safe escape time may be intimately associated with high uncertainties, especially for buildings in which people can be expected to evacuate long distances through smoke, for example, underground transportation systems. In order to address the lack of data on movement through smoke, 133 data points on individual walking speed in smoke are presented in this paper. The data lie within an extinction coefficient range of 1.2–7.5 m−1. In line with previous studies, it is demonstrated that the level of smoke density has a negative impact on the walking speed, whereas no significant effects of inclination, type of floor material, gender, age and height could be found in the data. In this paper, recommendations are also provided on how designers should treat the data in their fire safety risk assessments, depending on the type of risk analysis method, that is, if the designer is performing a deterministic analysis or a quantitative risk analysis. It is argued that this information can be used to reduce the uncertainty in future risk analyses involving egress calculations.
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| 28. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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The Impact of Smoke on Walking Speed
- 2013
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Ingår i: [Host publication title missing]. - 9780955654893 ; 2, s. 955-965
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- In fire safety engineering, information about the expected walking speed of occupants through smoke is one factor that is of great interest to the designer. However, despite the fact that research already in the 1970s demonstrated that people tend to evacuate through smoke, little research has been performed on the topic, and evidently there is a lack of data on walking speed in smoke. This has created a situation where fire safety engineering assessments of the RSET may be intimately associated with great uncertainties, especially for buildings in which in which people can be expected to evacuate long distances through smoke, e.g., underground transportation systems. In order to address the lack of data on movement through smoke, 133 data points on individual walking speed in smoke are presented in this paper. The presented data lies within an extinction coefficient range from 1.2 to 7.5 m-1 (approximately corresponding to a visibility interval of 2.4-0.4 m for reflecting objects). In addition, recommendations are given on how designers should treat the data in their fire safety risk assessments, depending on the type of risk analysis method, i.e., if the designer is performing a deterministic analysis, or a quantitative risk analysis (QRA). It is argued that this information can be used to reduce the uncertainty in future risk analyses that involve egress calculations.
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| 29. |
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| 30. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
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The relationship between obstructed and unobstructed walking speed: Results from an evacuation experiment in a smoke filled tunnel
- 2015
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Ingår i: [Host publication title missing]. - 9780993393303 ; , s. 537-548
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- In order to increase the knowledge on human behavior in smoke, an evacuation experiment was performed in a road tunnel in Stockholm in July, 2014. The experiment included 66 participants, who individually were instructed to evacuate a smoke-filled tunnel. The experiment focused on measuring the participants’ walking speed in smoke-filled, as well as smoke-free parts of the tunnel. In addition, exit choice was studied. In this paper, the experiment is described, and novel data on walking speed in smoke is presented, including coupled data on unobstructed walking speed. In addition, a short presentation of the results related to way-finding and exit choice is included. It is clear that although this paper expands the current knowledge on walking speed in smoke, future research is necessary in order to conclude how to represent an individual’s walking speed in smoke. Recommendations on a way forward are suggested, and included is a review of the now currently available data-sets, as well as a suggestion for a future evacuation experiment.
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| 31. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
-
The representation of evacuation movement in smoke-filled underground transportation systems
- 2019
-
Ingår i: Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0886-7798. ; 90, s. 28-41
-
Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- Limited guidance is available to engineers on how people's walking speed in smoke can and should be represented in the fire safety design process of underground transportation systems, such as road and rail tunnels. To address this issue, the behaviour and movement of people in case of evacuation due to a fire in underground transportation systems has been investigated. In this paper, the relationship between walking speed and visibility conditions has been analysed by performing a systematic review of current experimental research conducted in the field. This includes data-sets collected in Sweden, Japan, UK, Norway, Finland, Canada, and The Netherlands. A design recommendation on how to represent walking speed in both smoke-free and smoke-filled environments is presented. Uncertainty in data is thoroughly discussed and addressed in the recommendation. Three different methods to represent walking speed during the design of an underground transportation system are suggested. The selection of the method depends on the required treatment of uncertainty in the design. The developed representation substantially differs from existing methods used in fire engineering design to represent walking speed in smoke since it describes walking speed as a function of visibility, rather than the extinction coefficient. This permits comparison of data-sets collected in relationship to the presence of reflecting or emitting lights. Finally, suggestions on future research to be conducted in order to reduce the current uncertainties are provided.
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| 32. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
-
Train evacuation inside a tunnel: An interview study with senior citizens and people with disabilities
- 2012
-
Ingår i: [Host publication title missing]. - 9780955654886 ; , s. 346-358
-
Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- An interview study was performed in order to reveal some of the problems associated with evacuation of a train inside a tunnel for senior citizens and people with disabilities, and to identify possible technical installations that would aid their evacuation. A total of 19 people took part in the study, in which it was demonstrated that senior citizens and people with disabilities require either a smaller height difference than 1.4 meter between the train and tunnel floor, or a technical installation, e.g., an emergency ladder, if they are to be able to exit a train safely during an evacuation inside a tunnel. Almost all participants stated that one or more handles would aid them during an evacuation, and many would like to have a fixed ladder or steps that can be ejected when evacuation is necessary. Due to the fact that more and more senior citizens and people with disabilities will be using the underground transportation system, future research must include this population in both evacuation experiments and design studies aimed at improving conditions for evacuees. The results presented in the present paper can be used as qualitative guidance for these studies.
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| 33. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
-
TuFT: Tunnel Fire Tools - Teknisk dokumentation
- 2014
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Within the Swedish research project Rescue tactics and methodology during fires in underground facilities, a simple decision support tool has been developed. The tool can, for example, aid decision makers involved in the early phase of road and rail tunnel fire risk assessments. The tool has been developed at Lund University and has been termed TuFT, which is an abbreviation for Tunnel Fire Tools. TuFT can be described as a very simple computer program, developed in Java, which has the capability to perform calculations of tunnel fire dynamic properties for a specified tunnel fire. In addition, this information can be used to perform assessments of evacuation possibilities as well as rescue operation possibilities for the same tunnel fire scenario. In this report, which has been written in the form of a technical documentation, the basic calculation principles of TuFT are presented. This means that the underlying models and equations building up TuFT are presented and described. In addition, a user manual, a number of simulation examples and the programming code are included in appendices to the report. The purpose of this report is to highlight the limitations of TuFT by going through the technical principles of the calculations done in TuFT. The purpose is also to explain how the model can and should be used in order to perform well. The goal is that TuFT, together with this report, should be able to use by both fire protection engineers involved with fire safety design of road and rail tunnels as well as decision makers employed within the fire rescue services. The report is written for TuFT version 14.10.22.1.
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| 34. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
-
Undermarksanläggningar utmaning för både brandskyddsprojektörer och utrymmande människor
- 2014
-
Ingår i: Bygg & teknik. - 0281-658X. ; 6:14, s. 36-41
-
Tidskriftsartikel (populärvet., debatt m.m.)abstract
- Växande storstäder och ett ökat byggande under mark har gjort att undermarksanläggningar för bland annat transportsystem ökat i antal under de senaste decennierna. Tun- nelsystem för till exempel väg- och järnvägstunnlar har dessutom inte bara ökat i antal, utan också blivit längre och anlagts allt djupare under mark. Detta skapar nya ut- maningar för utrymmande personer och för den projekterande ingenjö- ren som ska dimensionera utrym- ningssäkerheten i de djupt belägna byggnadsverken. Det rådande kun- skapsläget om vad som händer när människor ska utrymma längre sträckor uppåt och hur en projektör ska hantera de nya utmaningarna är dock bristfälliga. Bristen på forsk- ningsresultat och riktlinjer kan äventyra säkerheten, något som uppmärksammats i en nyligen publi- cerad litteraturstudie om utrymning uppför längre trappor.
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| 35. |
- Fridolf, Karl
(författare)
-
Utrymning i järnvägstunnlar
- 2015
-
Ingår i: Brandposten. ; :52, s. 6-
-
Tidskriftsartikel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)
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| 36. |
- Fridolf, Karl, et al.
(författare)
-
Utvärdering av utrymningsbelysning i vägtunnlar
- 2017
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- I svenska vägtunnlars trafikutrymme ska det finnas utrymningsbelysningsarmaturer i form av vägledande utrymningsljus. För Trafikverkets vägtunnlar styrs utformningen av innehållet i SS-EN 16276:2013 om utrymningsbelysning i vägtunnlar. I denna standard föreskrivs dock endast en minsta ljusstyrka (motsvarande 1 candela i alla riktningar som de kan ses från en utrymmande person), vilket är ett mycket lågt värde. Därtill föreskrivs ingen motsvarande nivå på minsta belysningsstyrka.I syfte att utvärdera huruvida den ljusstyrkenivå som föreskrivs för utrymningsbelysningsarmaturer i vägtunnlar i SS-EN 16276:2013 kan förväntas uppfylla sin funktion i en utrymningssituation har ett inledande FoI- projekt genomförts. Målet med projektet har varit att:1. Med utgångspunkt i det aktuella forskningsläget om människors beteende i bränder beskriva den eller de funktioner som utrymningsbelysning i vägtunnlar bör uppfylla vid en utrymning i händelse av brand.2. I ett mindre laboratorieförsök i en rökfylld miljö utvärdera utformningen av olika utrymningsbelysningsarmaturer, bland annat med avseende på ljusstyrka.Slutsatsen baserat på den litteraturgenomgång och utvärdering som genomförts inom ramen för projektet är att utrymningsbelysning i vägtunnlars trafikutrymme, ofta benämnda vägledande utrymningsljus, bör uppfylla två funktioner: 1) en orienterande funktion (för de utrymmande), och; 2) en belysande funktion (av vägen till en utrymningsväg), i synnerhet i rökfyllda miljöer och vid bortfall av ordinarie strömförsörjning. Baserat på den genomförda utvärderingen kan det dock konstateras att de krav på ljusstyrka som anges i SS-EN 16276:2013, i kombination med att inget krav ställs på belysningsstyrka, inte är tillräckliga för att berörda utrymningsbelysningsarmaturer ska kunna uppfylla ovan nämnda funktioner i en utrymningssituation. Av den anledningen framstår det som angeläget att i en fortsättningsstudie dels definiera explicita kravnivåer på ljus- och belysningsstyrka, dels hur utformningen av armaturerna bör ske i vägtunnelns trafikutrymme.Ett första steg i ett arbete med att definiera explicita kravnivåer på ljus- och belysningsstyrkor samt armaturutformning bedöms vara att samordna den begreppsapparat som är kopplad till frågan. Det framstår som alldeles nödvändigt att försöka ena både centrala nyckeltermer kring vad som egentligen är utrymningsväg , säker plats , etcetera, liksom att definiera ljus- och belysningstekniska termer som utrymningsbelysning och de delar som tillsammans bygger upp hela utrymningsbelysningskonceptet. Att definiera en sådan begreppsapparat har inte ingått i projektet, men ett förslag till en möjlig väg framåt presenteras likväl som en bilaga till denna rapport.
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| 37. |
- Grindrod, Sam, et al.
(författare)
-
A priori modelling of an underground evacuation
- 2011
-
Ingår i: [Host publication title missing]. - 9788486116460 ; , s. 337-357
-
Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- “Can an engineer, using a current simulation modelling programs, produce evacuation flow rates of a live emergency evacuation a priori to the analyses of the evacuation?” The above question is explored with reference to previous pre-evacuation modelling attempts and a new series of “small-scale” underground train evacuation experiments conducted under the METRO research project. METRO is concerned with infrastructure protection, specifically the protection of underground rail mass transport systems, encompassing fire and explosion hazards, evacuation, rescue operations and smoke control. The tests involve evacuation of approximately 40 occupants from a mock- up underground carriage and egress through a smoke-filled tunnel. The evacuation models were created using the Monte-Carlo human behaviour modelling program CRISP. A specific feature was developed to handle the impact of sudden change of height along the egress route. The process and assumptions made during the modelling are examined in order to highlight the issues which affect simulation capabilities and accuracy.
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| 38. |
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| 39. |
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| 40. |
- Halder, Amitava, et al.
(författare)
-
Limitations of oxygen uptake and leg muscle activity during ascending evacuation in stairways
- 2017
-
Ingår i: Applied Ergonomics. - : Elsevier BV. - 0003-6870. ; 66, s. 52-63
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Stair ascending performance is critical during evacuation from buildings and underground infrastructures. Healthy subjects performed self-paced ascent in three settings: 13 floor building, 31 floor building, 33 m stationary subway escalator. To investigate leg muscle and cardiorespiratory capacities and how they constrain performance, oxygen uptake (VO2), heart rate (HR) and ascending speed were measured in all three; electromyography (EMG) in the first two. The VO2 and HR ranged from 89-96 % of the maximum capacity reported in the literature. The average highest VO2 and HR ranged from 39-41 mL·kg-1·min-1 and 162-174 b·min-1, respectively. The subjects were able to sustain their initial preferred maximum pace for a short duration, while the average step rate was 92-95 steps·min-1. In average, VO2 reached relatively stable values at ≈37 mL·kg-1·min-1. EMG amplitudes decreased significantly and frequencies were unchanged. Speed reductions indicate that climbing capacity declined in the process of fatigue development. In the two buildings, the reduction of muscle power allowed the subjects to extend their tolerance and complete ascents in the 48 m and 109 m high stairways in 2.9 and 7.8 minutes, respectively. Muscle activity interpretation squares were developed and proved advantageous to observe fatigue and recovery over time.
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| 41. |
- Ingason, Haukur, et al.
(författare)
-
Taktik och Metodik vid brand i Undermarksanläggningar (TMU) - Sammanfattningsrapport
- 2015
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The report compiles the results from the TMU-project. The focus is on fire-fighting performance, capability and organization in underground constructions. The emphasis was on large-scale testing with authentic fire conditions and fire-fighting equipment, development of tools for prediction of hazardous conditions and capabilities of fire-fighting during different conditions, organizational management and tactics, education and development of recommendations. The project was divided into different work packages and these are presented in this final summary report. The test fires performed in the project created severe conditions for fire-fighters who moved in smoke for over 180 m before fighting fully developed fires in a range of 18 to 33 MW. The fires consisted of wood pallets placed in a semi-open steel container, simulating a train wagon fire. The walking speed and connection time for hoses and connections were registered and documented by infra-red cameras. The most important results from these tests is that the time taken to approach the fire depends on parameters as type of equipment, preparation, possibilities for use of infra-red (IR) cameras and the capacity of the extinguishing media. The heat radiation from the fire was found to be important to overcome in order to get close enough to fight the fire. Recommendations and tactics for fighting fires in underground constructions are given.
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| 42. |
|
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| 43. |
- Ingason, Haukur, et al.
(författare)
-
The Metro Project : Final report
- 2012
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This report compiles the results from the METRO project. The different parts of theproject – design fires, evacuation, integrated fire control, smoke control, extraordinarystrain onconstructions and fire- and rescue operations – are presented separately.The most complicated and expensive part of the project was the performance of thelarge scale fire and explosion tests in the Brunsberg tunnel, where the maximum heatrelease rates measured from the metro wagon was 77 MW.The main results from the project are new recommendations regarding design firesin mass transport systems, identification of key factors for fire and smoke spread in tunnelsand at stations as well as regarding the difficulties for disabled persons to evacuatefrom trains in tunnels, new recommended types of way guiding systems, safer design incase of explosions in trains and evaluation of the fire and rescue services’ possibilitiesand limitations in underground mass transport systems.
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| 44. |
|
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| 45. |
- Ingason, Haukur, et al.
(författare)
-
The Metro Project: Final Report
- 2012
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The report compiles the results from the METRO-project. The different parts of the project; design fires, evacuation, integrated fire control, smoke control, extraordinary strain on constructions and fire- and rescue operations are presented separately. The most complicated and expensive part of the project was the performance of the large scale fire and explosion tests in the Brunsberg tunnel. The maximum heat release rates measured from the metro carriage was 77 MW. The maximum ceiling gas temperatures was 1118 °C. These values are high, and should be put into a perspective of the situation and the type of carriages used. The project is not recommending the highest values as the design fire, but values reflected in conditions. The egress study confirm that one of the major issues related to fire evacuation in underground transportation systems is that people often are reluctant to initiate an evacuation. New data show that participants moved with an average of 0.9 meters per second in the smoke filled environment (average visibility of 1.5–3.5 meters). A way-finding installation at the emergency exit, which consisted of a loudspeaker, was found to perform particularly well in terms of attracting people to the door. Two smoke control systems were simulated for a single exit metro station. The systems consisted of a pressurizing supply air system and mechanical exhaust ventilation system with and without platform screen doors. The results show that both the pressurizing supply air system and the mechanical exhaust air system provide effective smoke control for one exit metro station. The significance of the platform screen doors was shown to be important in relation to smoke control. Experiments and simulations have provided increased confidence in ability to simulate explosion scenarios to determine the pressure inside and outside a carriage and to be able to study variations of conditions such as carriage geometry and window designs. The explosion test performed show that an explosion with a relatively minor charge can significantly change the conditions for both evacuees and the rescue service. The results show that the conditions for evacuation and rescue operations can change dramatically as a result of a relatively minor explosion. Evaluation of methods and fire and rescue tactics in metros is given. Mapping of IR imaging as a tactical resource at tunnel fires was presented.
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| 46. |
- Lönnermark, Anders, et al.
(författare)
-
Recommendations for Firefighting in Underground Facilities
- 2016
-
Ingår i: Proceedings from the 7th International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security. - SP Sveriges Tekniska Forskningsinstitut, Borås. ; , s. 115-125, s. 115-125
-
Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The need for a successful fire and rescue operation in an underground facility, e.g., a tunnel, introduces challenges both in the planning phase and during the incident. This is because these types of facilities can be very complex, and thus, specific tactics are needed compared to the more common incidents, e.g. in residential premises. When planning a fire and rescue operation and developing the tactics many different aspects need to be considered: complexity of the facility, the expected number of people involved in the operation, information available about the incident, the purpose of operation, etc. This paper contains recommendations for firefighting in underground facilities. The recommendations are structured in accordance to the sequential time period during which some specific fire safety design measures are taken. These periods are the design phase, the construction phase and finally when the facility is in operation. The recommendations presented in this paper are based on the results of the Swedish TMU research project (Tactics and methodologies for firefighting in underground facilities), results from other research projects and experience from real fire and rescue operations.
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| 47. |
- Lönnermark, Anders, 1968-, et al.
(författare)
-
Rekommendationer för räddningsinsatser i undermarksanläggningar
- 2015
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The report contains recommendations for firefighting in underground facilities. This implies results from a research project and the recommendations are based on case studies, interviews, experiments and discussion with different fire departments. The recommendations are structured in accordance to the time period of the actual incident occurrence or the time period during which some specific measures are taken. These periods are project period, construction phase and finally when the facility is in operation. The recommendations are based on the work in the TMU project (Tactics and methodologies for firefighting in underground facilities), results from other research projects and experience from real fire and rescue operations.
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| 48. |
- Meraner, Christoph, et al.
(författare)
-
Brannsikkerhet i jernbanetunnel : Dimensjonerende brannscenario og forventninger til redningsinnsats
- 2020
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Denne studien belyser ulike aspekter ved personsikkerheten ved brann i tunnel og svarer ut konkrete spørsmål omkring temaet.Oppdragsgiver er Bane NOR. Prosjektet har fått innspill fra en arbeidsgruppe som er koordinert og ledet av hhv. KS Bedrift og Bane NOR – med fagressurser fra Vestfold Interkommunale Brannvesen IKS (VIB), Bergen brannvesen (BB), Oslo brann- og redningsetat (OBRE), Bane NOR, operatørselskaper (Vy og Flytoget), Direktoratet for samfunnssikkerhet og beredskap (DSB) og Statens havarikommisjon for transport (SHT).Rapporten er delt inn i to hoveddeler. Del 1 omhandler kartlegging av relevante forskningsprosjekt, dimensjonerende brannscenarier og røykkontroll, se sammendrag og forslag til veien videre i underkapittel 3.5. Del 2 omhandler kartlegging av kunnskap om menneskelig atferd i forbindelse med tunnelbrann, se sammendrag og forslag til veien videre i underkapittel 4.5. Denne delen er utarbeidet av Lunds Tekniska Högskola og WSP Sverige, og er følgelig på svensk.
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| 49. |
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| 50. |
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