| 1. |
- Jønland Højsgaard, Trine, 1968-
(författare)
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Reframed Identity : Red Cross nurses' identity formation between 1945 and 1977
- 2019
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The overall aim is to explore the construction of nurse identity at the Red Cross Nursing School (RCNS) in Sweden, between 1945 and 1977, when nursing became part of the system of higher education in Sweden. Occupational identity is understood as a construct both of social learning and of a self-image. The empirical data consist of documents from the Red Cross Archive concerning the training of nurses and of interviews with nurses trained during the studied period. A hermeneutical interpretative method has been used. The result showed that the period studied was divided into two different phases. The first phase between 1945 and the end of the 1960s, is called the post war phase. The following phase, from the 1960s until 1977, is called the reform friendly phase. RCNS was in the post war phase a kind of total institution, based on a particular belonging to a very special and highly respected social community, reinforced by the student nurses being dressed in the same uniform and living under the same strong authority in a quite homogeneous group. The training was an introduction to a life-long membership in the total Red Cross Nurse community. This community was in the reform friendly phase challenged by diverse external changes in society. Within a period of approximately ten years, much came to be questioned, and many previously important customs and habits were abandoned. The total community started to dilute, and the lives of students changed gradually passing to a social arrangement where they slept, lived and worked in different places with different people under different authorities. The total community was impossible to modernise, built as it was on pre-modern values and hierarchies. This led to a breakdown of the traditional Red Cross nurse identity based on honour, where they were first of all Red Cross sisters. While the uniform occupational identity was challenged, more and more nurses combined family and work. This meant that their self-identities became more multidimensional. The key to our understanding of the Red Cross nursing education and the shift that took place in the late 1960s is thus to be found in the transformation of the internal collective, where nurses no longer lived and 2 learnt the traditional Red Cross codes of honour and conduct. Gradually, nurse training was integrated into higher education. This was a major reframing of the occupational identity formation, from specially selected Red Cross nurse students being trained into a total community of experienced Red Cross nurses, to an academic education of professional nurses.
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| 2. |
- Gustafsson, Anders, 1985-
(författare)
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Industrial policy : Political considerations, payoffs, and peculiar incentives
- 2018
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This thesis consists of four independent papers. They deal with some aspects of industrial policy, namely public supports to firms that are intended to support innovation and growth at the firm level, using Swedish data. Two papers study the efficiency of current Swedish policies by estimating the effects of subsidies and public loans to firms, respectively.The results on subsidized firms suggests that there are some positive effects on profits and productivity, but these diminish and disappear over time. The results of public loans are more positive with long lasting effects on productivity and sales but only for smaller firms. Public loans do not lead to an increase in the number of employees in the firms that receive them.The third paper studies the selection of firms for subsidies and the incentives firms have to seek them. By modeling the decision to seek subsidies as a trade off between producing in the market and seeking grants, the results suggest that firms with low market productivity might self-select into seeking grants. The empirical results are in line with the theoretical predictions.The final paper studies the incentives that politicians have to implement programs and policies that they know will be inefficient. Since a lack of political action can make the politicians look incompetent, incumbentens have incentives to implement policies even though they know that these will be ineffective, to signal competence towards the voters.
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| 3. |
- Thörne, Karin, 1957-
(författare)
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Läkare, lärande och interaktion i hälso-och sjukvårdspraktiker
- 2018
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Bakgrund: Komplexiteten i hälso- och sjukvården blir kontinuerligt större, liksom möjligheterna till diagnostik och behandling. Samtidigt pressas hälso- och sjukvården av förändringar i demografier och sjukdomspanoraman, olika uttryck för globalisering och tillämpning av nya teknologier. Ett omfattande antal olika professioner förväntas genomföra och utveckla det dagliga arbetet med ännu mer involvering av patienter. Vi behöver mer kunskap om hur lärande sker och hur det underlättas och utvecklas i dagligt hälso- och sjukvårdsarbete för att kunna möta förändringar och utmaningar. Syfte: Avhandlingens övergripande syfte är att fördjupa kunskap och förståelse om pedagogiska processer och lärande i hälso- och sjukvårdspraktiker, med särskilt fokus på läkare. Metoder: Intervjustudier och fältstudie med interaktiv forskningsansats gav data med både bredd och djup från autentiskt hälso- och sjukvårdsarbete. I pågående hälso- och sjukvårdsarbete studerades läkare, vårdgivare i andra professioner, patienter, redskap som användes och praktikens rumsliga utformning. Data analyserades genom både kulturella och sociomateriella praktikteoretiska linser, vilket möjliggjorde att flera dimensioner av lärande och interaktion i hälso- och sjukvårdspraktiker kunde spåras. Fynd: I arbetet med patienter agerade läkare och andra professioner pedagogiskt med eller utan intentioner, i pedagogiska processer som bestod av att avläsa-färdrikta-lärstödja. Den pedagogiska dimensionen av arbetet var inte synliggjord eller diskuterad i relation till patientarbetet. Dynamiskt inbäddat i arbetet lärde och stöttade läkare också yngre läkares och andra vårdgivares lärande. Läkarnas mobilitet i olika vårdsammanhang, såväl som ansvarsfördelning och delande av olika perspektiv, hade betydelse för vilket lärande som uppstod. Genom att betrakta specifika vårdsammanhang som hälso- och sjukvårdspraktiker under utövning, framträdde vid studiet av en rondmodell både samskapande lärande ronder och operativa ronder med begränsat lärande. Det framträdde genom sättet som deltagande personer, rumsliga och materiella förhållande samspelade på, som ömsesidigt utbyte respektive separata individuella arbetsprocesser. Samspelet mellan hälso- och sjukvårdspraktikers arrangemang (praktikarkitekturer) och genomförande snarare begränsade än underlättade underläkares lärandepraktiker. Underläkarnas arbete hade inte kontinuitet, koherens eller progression för att bredden av kunnande i medicinsk praktiskt arbete skulle kunna utvecklas bra. Implikationer: Att förstå och synliggöra lärande i hälso- och sjukvårdens dagliga arbete genom att gemensamt prata om pedagogiska dimensioner i det arbete som pågår, kan utveckla lärande och lärstödjande ageranden. Samskapande lärande hälso- och sjukvårdspraktiker där alla deltagande gruppers behov och uppdrag medräknas, har implikationer på underläkares kompetensutveckling, studenters lärande, patienters involvering i sin vård och interprofessionellt och interdisciplinärt samarbete. Det ger också ledare möjlighet att knyta arbete med förbättringar av vårdens kvalitetet och säkerhet till dagligt vårdarbete.
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| 4. |
- Adams Lyngbäck, Liz, 1966-
(författare)
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Experiences, networks and uncertainty : parenting a child who uses a cochlear implant
- 2016
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The aim of this dissertation project is to describe the ways people experience parenting a deaf child who uses a cochlear implant. Within a framework of social science studies of disability this is done by combining approaches using ethnographic and netnographic methods of participant observation with an interview study. Interpretations are based on the first-person perspective of 19 parents against the background of their related networks of social encounters of everyday life. The netnographic study is presented in composite conversations building on exchanges in 10 social media groups, which investigates the parents’ meaning-making in interaction with other parents with similar living conditions. Ideas about language, technology, deafness, disability, and activism are explored. Lived parenting refers to the analysis of accounts of orientation and what 'gets done' in respect to these ideas in situations where people utilize the senses differently. In the results, dilemmas surrounding language, communication and cochlear implantation are identified and explored. The dilemmas extend from if and when to implant, to decisions about communication modes, intervention approaches, and schools. An important finding concerns the parents’ orientations within the dilemmas, where most parents come up against antagonistic conflicts. There are also examples found of a development process in parenting based on lived, in-depth experiences of disability and uncertainty which enables parents to transcend the conflictive atmosphere. This process is analyzed in terms of a social literacy of dis/ability.
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| 5. |
- Månsson, Niclas, 1965-
(författare)
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Negativ socialisation : Främlingen i Zygmunt Baumans författarskap
- 2005
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In this dissertation I address the question of why some social groups classify some people and groups as strangers. To answer the question I focus the stranger in the writings of the Polish sociologist Zygmunt Bauman.According to Bauman, the social construction of the stranger cannot be compared with the asymmetrical relation between an in-group and an out-group. An in-group stands for friends and proximity. It considers the out-group as the enemy at a distance. The hierarchical and a reciprocal relationship that exists between the in-group and the out-group is a part of the social order. The stranger, on the other hand, is constructed in the ambivalent position between the in-group and the out-group. Since there is no room for the stranger in an orderly world she has to be dealt with in a way that keeps the world free from incongruity.Since Bauman considers the moral consequence of cultural classification, his work is also relevant for the question of living with the stranger. Leaving the Occidental rational tradition in favour of a phenomenological tradition, Bauman offers a view that considers the encounter with the stranger as a moral meeting. Highlighting responsibility, instead of social arrangements, law or tradition, Bauman visualises the stranger as a moral subject and not as aparticular social type, one who is constantly out of placeThe theoretical considerations of the social making of the stranger, and the moral understanding of living for the stranger, contribute to a deeper understanding about the institutional origins of social marginalisation and cultural exclusion.
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| 6. |
- Nilsson, Angela, 1961-
(författare)
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Gränsvakter : Tankestilar och sortering vid rekrytering av personal i sex kommuner
- 2006
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This dissertation is about the selection process taking place in connection with the recruitment of staff. My interest in this question stems from two problems, on the one hand the extensive discrimination on the Swedish labour market that affects people due to their origin, and on the other hand, the major efforts that are made to further integration on the labour market. So far we have not seen any substantial effect of these efforts. It’s a complex problem.Research that deals with the ethnic belonging of people and its importance when they are seeking employment shows that discrimination often is the outcome of unreflected processes that contribute to sorting out various categories of applicants. It is on this aspect of exclusion this study focuses.The main question is: How can practices of staff recruitment help us understand processes of exclusion on the labour market? Focus is on employers that are seeking to hire staff and their line of argument when they are selecting persons for employment.The study is based on written material such as advertising, applications for work, written comments on applications and data that are collected during observation and in talks with employers and staff from six municipalities. The sociology of knowledge has been my theoretical inspiration.The analysis shows that organisations have a fairly clear comprehension of what people they want in terms of qualifications and experience, and that choices are led by more or less predictable norms, regulations and routines. In other words, applicants who do not meet the expectations of the organisations will be excluded. Organisations are run permeated by certain styles of thought that determine their (institutionalized) actions and patterns which justify their selection. These styles of thought function as gatekeepers.
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| 7. |
- Bek, Anders, 1969-
(författare)
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Undervisning och reflektion : Om undervisning och förutsättningar för studenters reflektion mot bakgrund av teorier om erfarenhetslärande
- 2012
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The aim of this study is to explore how teaching can be described by the use of experiential learning theory, focusing on the conditions for students’ reflection. The questions are: How can experiential learning theory and theory about reflection be adapted for analysis and description of teaching? How can a concrete teaching practice be analyzed and described by the use of such theory? What conditions for different levels of reflection do different ways of teaching create? In this observational study, the researcher has followed police students at Umeå University during their first semester of study. Lessons were documented using field notes and video camera. The teachers were interviewed about their views on teaching, and a group of students were interviewed about how they perceived the teaching. Based on Kolb’s experiential learning model (Kolb 1984), a new model for analyzing and describing teaching, named MABU, was developed and used as an analytical tool. MABU describes teaching by identifying and naming four new types of teaching, each of which is a combination of a type of content and a way of processing it: Formulation, Discussion, Application and Exercise. The main tendency is that teaching predominantly consisted of Formulation and Discussion, with an emphasis on theoretical content, processed through verbal activities such as group discussions. However, the studied teaching also included practical content and activities. Instances of student reflection were graded using Moon’s model for grading reflection (Moon2004:214ff). The results show that in most cases, concrete content is processed through organized reflective activities such as discussions, while theoretical content is frequently presented without any subsequent processing activities. In 20 % of the observed lessons, articulated student reflection on deeper levels took place. The teaching during these lessons was subject to further analysis, focusing on four aspects: the presence of interactive activities and a “problem” to stimulate reflection (cf. Dewey 1998/1933); how students’ previous experiences are treated, and whether lesson content is related to the students, their experiences and future, thereby facilitating the creation of what Dewey calls“interest” (Dewey 1975/1913); how emotions are evoked, used and dealt with; and teacher performance, in terms of communicative techniques and how the teacher gives a sense of “personhood” (Brookfield 2006:71). The results show that content is consistently related to the students, their views, values and future profession. However, although the teachers stress the importance of students reflecting critically on previous experiences, these were seldom addressed during the lessons. Based on detailed analysis and rich description of teaching, the study suggests a number of teacher actions and behaviors that stimulate and deepen student reflection, and others that seem to inhibit reflective activity.
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| 8. |
- Ekstam, David, 1988-
(författare)
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The Socialization of Intergroup Attitudes : The Problem of Generations
- 2021
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This doctoral thesis regards long-term aggregate trends in intergroup attitudes and the individual-level mechanisms that underlie change and continuity on the aggregate-level. The thesis focusses primarily on attitudes toward homosexuality in the North American context and attitudes toward immigration in the European context. I approach these subjects from a political socialization perspective, which emphasizes the importance of early-life experiences for the development of political orientations. From this perspective, the expectation is that aggregate-level value change is principally driven by generational replacement.The thesis is comprised of three separate research papers. In the first paper, I address the conflicting findings of prior age-period-cohort studies of long-term change in American attitudes toward homosexuality. The paper demonstrates that the conflicting findings of previous research essentially are a product of different studies using different analytical constraints in order to ensure model identification in the face of the identification problem that exists in age-period-cohort analysis. While this identification problem impedes clear-cut inference with regard to linear cohort effects, I nevertheless propose that generational replacement has been an important factor behind the liberal shift in American public opinion on homosexuality over the past few decades. In the second paper, I examine the lifespan developmental trajectory of attitudes toward homosexuality by the means of American panel data. The paper demonstrates that attitudes toward homosexuality are highly stable on the individual-level but also that attitude stability increases across the human lifespan, which suggest that this kind of attitudes are primarily formed early in life. In the third paper, I look at generational differences in the relationship between education and anti-immigrant sentiment. The paper demonstrates that this relationship has increased in strength across cohorts born over the 20th century in most Western European countries. Importantly, this cross-generational trend has been driven mainly by the highly educated strata of the population. This suggests that the capacity of educational institutions to reduce negative outgroup attitudes through socialization increases as a democratic regime consolidates over time.
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| 9. |
- Gustavsson, Caroline, 1975-
(författare)
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Existentiella konfigurationer : Om hur förståelsen av livet tar gestalt i ett socialt sammanhang
- 2013
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The thesis contributes to the research field of education, or more specific to the field of religious education. The aim of the thesis is to interpret how young adults of today describe and understand their lives, with a specific focus on existential themes, and furthermore, to develop useful concepts that can help us understand individual meaning-making in a social and cultural context.The meaning-making of young people and how they explore and develop their understanding is, in the thesis, seen both as an individual process and at the same time something socially shared. The theoretical understanding of the social context takes its point of departure in Berger and Luckmann’s theory about the social construction of reality. The methodological approach is empirical and the study is based on 21 deep-interviews with men and women between 19-29 years old. Their statements are analyzed using a hermeneutic - interpretive method.The thesis gives a picture of the young adults’ understanding of death and the meaning of life. But the study also addresses vital existential themes for the young adults around the questions: who am I, what do I want to choose and where am I heading. Still another important theme is insecurity. One important contribution of the thesis is the development of new concepts that describe the young adults’ understanding of their lives, in terms of personal and shared configurations. In the material I have seen three different kinds of shared configurations and I speak of those in terms of: life-views, taken for granted perspectives and institutions. The dynamics that the personal configurations give examples of can be understood both in light of the shared configurations but also in light of the personal agency that the young adults show signs of.
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| 10. |
- Gustavsson, Marie, 1974-
(författare)
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Studies of Intracellular Transport and Anticancer Drug Action by Functional Genomics in Yeast
- 2008
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This thesis describes the use of functional genomics screens in yeast to study anticancer drug action and intracellular transport. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae provides a particularly useful model system for global drug screens, due to the availability of knockout mutants for all yeast genes. A complete collection of yeast deletion mutants was screened for sensitivity to monensin, a drug that affects intracellular transport. A total of 63 deletion mutants were recovered, and most of them were in genes involved in transport beyond the Golgi. Surprisingly, none of the V-ATPase subunits were identified. Further analysis showed that a V-ATPase mutant interacts synthetically with many of the monensin-sensitive mutants. This suggests that monensin may act by interfering with the maintenance of an acidic pH in the late secretory pathway. The second part of the thesis concerns identification of the underlying causes for susceptibility and resistance to the anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). In a functional genomics screen for 5-FU sensitivity, 138 mutants were identified. Mutants affecting tRNA modifications were particularly sensitive to 5-FU. The cytotoxic effect of 5-FU is strongly enhanced in these mutants at higher temperature, which suggests that tRNAs are destabilized in the presence of 5-FU. Consistent with this, higher temperatures also potentiate the effect of 5-FU on wild type yeast cells. In a plasmid screen, five genes were found to confer resistance to 5-FU when overexpressed. Two of these genes, CPA1 and CPA2 encode the two subunits of the arginine-specific carbamoyl-phosphate synthase. The three other genes, HMS1, YAE1 and YJL055W are partially dependent on CPA1 and CPA2 for their effects on 5-FU resistance. The specific incorporation of [14C]5-FU into tRNA is diminished in all overexpressor strains, which suggest that they may affect the pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway.
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| 11. |
- Kesthely, Martha, 1945-
(författare)
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Jag vill att ni hämtar min mamma... : Villkor för familjearbete för ungdomar inom institutionsvården.
- 2006
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This thesis is about a special type of institutional treatment called family-work. It can be described as different ways to involve the families of the youth in their treatment programme. The locus of the study are special treatment homes which provide treatment for youth with serious social and behavioural problems. The study concerns three units at three institutions. The thesis has a qualitative and interpretative approach with using of observations, field studies, combined with interviews and field notes. The study focuses at the pre-conditions for the local "family projects" run by the care workers. With "project" means a process where different actions take place. The Theory of Action concept facilitates the understanding of these types of process and the importance of the internal(subjective) and external(objective) conditions in proportion to the space of action. Several local conditions influenced the pre-requisites for the staff to be able to carry out a "family project" and decide how to realize an intention. Important conditions were commissions given by the social services and the treatment focus at the units. The units are functioned as kinds of overall social "project contexts" with four basic characteristics: the treatment focus and structure, the professionalism and the organisation of the work. The conclusion from the study is that none of the "project contexts" at the three units provided good pre-requisites for family-work. "Family projects", realised by care workers were however professional and seem to have helped both the parents and the young persons, but "the project" were, in total, relatively few. It appeared that a successfully completed "family project" is the last step in a long process in which many different conditions contribute to the destiny of the "project". A clear family focused structured treatment at a unit can provide the employees with good conditions for realising the opportunities they see for working with families.
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| 12. |
- Lagercrantz All, Katarina, 1957-
(författare)
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Delaktighet- och lärprocesser i en yrkesutbildning : En studie av vuxna elevers erfarenheter av vård- och omsorgsutbildningen inom Komvux
- 2017
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Numerous research on the development of knowledge and skills within health and social care has been undertaken; however, it can be argued that there is a need to understand the connection between inclusion and the development in knowledge and experience. The purpose of this dissertation is to explore students’ experiences of the health and social care adult- education program, and participation and learning processes it represents. The program is considered the formal route to acquire a position as a nursing assistant or health care assistant. Furthermore, the program can be seen as a combination of vocational training, and a measure to reduce unemployment.This empirical study is based on 15 in- depth interviews with students in the health and social care adult-education. These interviews are using a hermeneutic interpretation method, and draw on Lave and Wenger`s theory of learning. In addition to sociocultural theory according to Säljö.Findings indicate that the adult-education program in health and social care is not only a training process, but also a participation process. For the students, it is about gaining participation in the professional community, in Swedish society, and also about an existential safety in a social context. In order to gain participation, intellectual and physical artifacts, as well as personal qualities, are a prerequisite. Despite these requirements, and the challenges students face, the findings reveal that most students continue their studies. This finding leads to the idea that health and social care can be understood a discipline of inclusion.These findings assist the health and social care field in understanding the connection between said artifacts for inclusion in working life and society; in addition, that such programs should be understood from a wider perspective and viewed in relation to the tension between three educational projects: the students` individual project, the program organizer’s project and the national, societal education project.
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| 13. |
- Molin, Martin
(författare)
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Att vara i särklass : om delaktighet och utanförskap i gymnasiesärskolan
- 2004
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In the Swedish debate concerning disability issues it has been shown, as in many other countries, that the concept ‘participation’ has been used in a very vague and obscure way. For example, at an ideological level the concept often refers to ‘accessibility’. Others claim that it should be understood as ‘social integration’ or ‘inclusion’. In the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (WHO) participation means ‘involvement’ in a life situation. In the literature there are several ways to approach the concept of participation. Broadly, it is used to describe a characteristic within the individual or the result of an interplay. The general aim of this thesis is to illuminate different forms of participation within the municipal upper secondary special programme for pupils with intellectual disabilities (ID).The study contains two main parts. On the one hand a semantic analysis is made for the purpose of illuminating different conceptual forms of participation. On the other hand a field study is performed. This empirical study can be described as a hermeneutically influenced field study designed to interpret participative patterns in everyday school situations.Data have been collected during a period of one school year. Several methods have been used in order to capture different kinds of patterns in the pupils’ participation in a chosen upper secondary individual program for pupils with ID. These methods involve participant observation in everyday school situations (which was recorded in field notes), interviews with pupils, staff and administrators.Rather often it is implied that a higher extent of involvement leads to a higher (or better) form of participation. My study showed something else. Several examples demonstrated how groups of pupils within the special programme setting gave up their involvement in specific activities since they wanted to show their belonging to a different community outside the school. The analysis showed that involvement, as one form of participation, is highly related to other forms of participation (for example formal and informal belonging). In one sense these pupils had a conception of how to behave in order to be accepted outside the special programme setting. Therefore it is possible to talk about the pupils in terms of different worlds of belonging. For a specific group of pupils the formal belonging to the special programme was a threat towards their self-image, which seemed to derive from another alternative world — with other ideals than are usually associated with special programmes for pupils with ID.
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| 14. |
- Spånberger Weitz, Ylva, 1975-
(författare)
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Ungas erfarenheter av skola, samhällsvård och vuxenblivande : En studie av fem livsberättelser
- 2011
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Avhandlingens syfte är att fördjupa kunskapen om skolsituationen för barn och ungdomar i samhällsvård samt att fördjupa kunskapen om de processer varigenom de unga finner vägar genom skolan och samhällsvården mot ett självständigt liv som unga vuxna. Studien har genomförts i fem svenska storstadskommuner. Materialet består huvudsakligen av upprepade intervjuer med unga som själva har erfarenhet av att vara placerade i samhällsvård. Som en bakgrund genomfördes en kartläggande aktstudie gällande alla de ungdomar från dessa kommuner, som under 2003 hade placerats i samhällsvård. Intervjudeltagarna valdes ut från denna kartläggning. I analysen av intervjuerna användes en narrativ livsberättelseansats. Fokus i analysen har riktats både mot att förstå de ungas erfarenheter av att leva i skola och samhällsvård och mot att förstå hur de unga, genom sina berättelser, tolkar dessa erfarenheter och på så sätt skapar en meningsfull berättelse om sig själva och sina liv. Resultatet visar att livet i samhällsvård för de unga är präglat av utsatthet på flera nivåer. Socialtjänstakterna pekar mot ett samband mellan svårigheter i hemmet och svårigheter i skolan för de ungdomar som placerades i samhällsvård. Livsberättelserna synliggör hur skolan, familjen och samhällsvården utgör en komplex helhet i de ungas vardag och hur utsatthet inom någon av dessa praktiker därmed tenderar att spridas vidare i en process av överförd utsatthet. I sin kamp för att undkomma denna utsatthet navigerar de unga mot arenor där de kan finna hemmatillhörighet, det vill säga en upplevelse av att förstå och ”höra hemma” i en socialt delad vardagsverklighet. Ett viktigt redskap i de ungas strävan efter hemmatillhörighet är deras förståelsearbete, det vill säga det kontinuerliga tolkningsarbete varigenom de – inom ramen för socialt delade hemmatillhörigheter – knyter ihop sina erfarenheter till en sammanhängande förståelse av sig själva och sina liv.
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| 15. |
- Velasquez, Adriana
(författare)
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AD/HD i skolans praktik : En studie om normativitet och motstånd i en särskild undervisningsgrupp
- 2012
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The purpose of this thesis is to study some of the everyday interactional processes that take place in a special teaching group of children diagnosed with AD/HD. This group operates in an elementary school in a Swedish multicultural neighborhood. The starting point of the study is that AD/HD is much more than a neuropsychiatric diagnosis in the school’s pedagogical practice. The diagnosis contributes to shape many of the complex processes related to identity, socialization and learning that take a central place in the group’s daily interaction. The thesis combines an ethnomethodological and intersectional approach to analyze the everyday interactional and conversational practices, as well as various institutional and social categorization processes, of importance to the group. The study is based on a one-year ethno-graphic fieldwork and focus mainly on field notes and video recordings collected during different teaching activities. The thesis explores how the teachers accomplish different arrangements and practices to meet the pupils’ special educational needs. By analyzing these arrangements and practices the study shows how teachers and pupils establish meaning and understanding of “the problematic pupil with AD/HD” in everyday interaction and in conversation. The focus is upon the role that practices like descriptions, categorizations, and identity attributions, play in the interaction between members of the group when they negotiate positions in terms of normativity and resistance. Also important is how the institutional ordering between teachers and the pupils is related to social orderings along the lines of disability, ethnicity, class and gender. The analysis shows how the everyday arrangements and practices applied in the group, in combination with the daily production of meaning, generate different selection and stigmatization processes that school and special teaching ideologies were trying to prevent. The study stress the need for new pedagogical approaches to increase the understanding of those processes, as well as the articulation of new pedagogical alternatives that better respond to pupils with special educational needs.
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| 16. |
- Waldén, Susanne, 1961-
(författare)
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Berättad berusning : Kulturella föreställningar i berättelser om berusade personer
- 2010
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This thesis discusses narratives about drunken people. The narratives are orally told as well as collected in the archives and are also written texts about people who are intoxicated. The intent of this research is to examine the social and cultural meaning of narratives about intoxicated people and in which way they reflect normative knowledge and experiences. The narratives are approached from three different angles; narratives that show the contemporary social and cultural order, narratives that maintain the order and narratives that provoke it. In the thesis I compare differences and similarities in two different times; the early modern peasant society and late modern society. The narratives reflect social hierarchies and they allude to subjects like work, people in power, masculinity and ideas about the way Swedes and “non-Swedes” drink. Other visible themes refer to the body and the relation between young people and established adults. The so called cautionary narratives tell us about the danger of drinking too much alcohol. Some of the cautionary stories contain warnings that are not addressed to drinking, but to other undesirable acts. The provocative narratives challenge unspoken rules and norms in society. The drinking stories also show freedom from bodily discipline and other social bonds. Certain places and people are associated with intoxication. The drinking narratives from the old days and nowadays are, in many ways alike, they have the same function through time. They are based on oppositions such as privacy and publicity, culture and nature, bodily functions and intellect. When they are told they indirectly show the normative view of life, by being the opposite.
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| 17. |
- Berthén, Diana, 1956-
(författare)
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Förberedelse för särskildhet : Särskolans pedagogiska arbete i ett verksamhetsteoretiskt perspektiv
- 2007
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Preparing for segregation. Educational work within the Swedish special school - an activity theoretical approachThis study aims at illuminating what is special about Särskolan’s pedagogical work. In Sweden schooling for children who are regarded intellectually disabled is organised in a special school, Särskolan, established during the late 1800s. Today Särskolan is organised in two forms, a training school and a compulsory särskola. The pedagogical work in Särskolan is commonly referred to as special and unique. However, what this special is has not previously been explored.The study is conducted within the tradition of cultural-historical activity theory. According to this tradition, personality, development and change is understood and explained in relation to various activity systems in which the individual is involved. Each activity is regarded as a historically developed, complex system of motive-driven, goal-orientated human actions that aim at finding solutions to a societal need. These theoretical assumptions have informed the design of the study of Särskolan as a historically developed activity.The study was carried out during the school year 2002–2003 in one training school classroom (grade 2–5) and one compulsory särskola classroom (K–4). Class-room observations and staff interviews were used for data production. The core of the analyses concerned what the teachers were trying to achieve. According to the theoretical assumption, the motive is expected to appear in the object of the activity, therefore the overall analysis focused on the object of the activity of teaching.One major result was that the teachers in the training school pursued preparations for daily life while in the compulsory särskola the pupils were prepared for teaching. With an activity theoretical approach to learning, the study further shows that the possibilities for pupils to learn – e.g. sign language in the training school or literacy in the compulsory särskola – were limited.The overall conclusion is that the special with the Särskola is that up-bringing and preparation dominate the activity. The emphasis on preparation seem to be related to the teachers’ conceptions of the pupils as being in need of a special kind of knowledge before they can be taught the knowledge referred to in the syllabuses.
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| 18. |
- Dahlin, Anders
(författare)
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Influence of Ladle-slag Additions on BOF-Process Parameters
- 2011
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Licentiatavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The influence of ladle-slag additions on the BOF-process performance were investigated in plant trials. The aim of the study was to recycle ladle slag from secondary steelmaking to the LD-converter to save lime and improve the slag formation. More specifically, two plant trial campaigns covering in total 83 heats, whereof 47 with ladle-slag additions and 36 without ladle-slag additions, were performed. Slag and steel sampling of the process were performed at tapping as well as during blowing at 15, 35, and 65% of the total blowing time. During the first campaign, ladle slag was added through the chute and lime reductions were made manually to correct for the ladle-slag addition. In the second campaign, a development of the approach was made to suite a normal production practice. More specifically, the ladle slag was added through the weight-hopper system and implemented in the process-control system. In this way, the lime additions were reduced automatically by approximately 260 kg per heat. Moreover, the heat balance was compensated with a reduction in the iron-ore consumption. Additionally, the lance program was modified and the lance was lowered in the initial stages of the blow. On the positive side, it was found that no demerits in the metallurgical performance of the process occur when ladle slag is recycled to the BOF-process. Furthermore, only slight affections on the slag composition were found, mainly with respect to the Al2O3 and FeO-content. In addition, the ladle slag was shown to melt during the initial stages of the blow. This contributed to an increased slag weight both during the blow and at tapping. However, a negative effect on the blowing time was experienced during the trials. Although, this effect was more pronounced during the first campaign and could be reduced with a controlled heat balance during the second campaign.
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| 19. |
- Dwyer, Helen, 1963-
(författare)
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Children at risk Securitization theory and special education reforms
- 2018
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Special education is to a significant extent based on special education programmes and support to children who are identified as children at risk. These programmes and support are often framed in educational reforms that aim to reduce risk and barriers to equal opportunities for learning and wellbeing. This thesis sets out to explore processes of special education reforms, with a special focus on the implementation of certain reforms. Here, a theoretical framework almost unknown in special education – securitization theory – is introduced, drawing on a tradition of securitization studies within the fields of Political Science and International Relations. The Copenhagen School’s theory of securitization referred to in the thesis describes the handling of vulnerabilities, insecurities and perceived threats through the initiation and implementation of securitization processes, such as, for example, education reforms. In short, securitization theory helps us understand processes of educational reforms in terms of identified threats, such as, for example, those against equal education for a specific group of pupils. Firstly, the reforms themselves are understood as securitization projects aimed at reducing threats to the young generation and as a consequence for society. Policies that concern children who are at risk by not receiving equal education, are handled differently among various securitization actors depending on how they perceive threats and education reform as a way to handle the perceived threat. Secondly, I introduce a new term into the examination of securitization processes – extended securitization actor. This assists the comprehension of additional implementation procedures and turns of securitization processes in the analytical procedure. Thirdly – and here I also add to the existing securitization theory – I show how a specific reform might itself be experienced as a threat to the goals and interests of actors at the lower levels of the implementation chain, which as a consequence, produces counter securitization processes that seem to influence the implementation of the education reform. The empirical parts of the thesis consist of empirical studies from South Africa and Sweden. Discussed are those education reform policies between the mid 1940s and 1970s in South Africa and Sweden that were directed towards the indigenous populations. Children “at risk” here concern educational issues linked to identity- and ethnic belonging and access to equal education for all children. Another study brings up the perception of environmental threats and international claims of incorporating Education for sustainable development (ESD) into national education. Children at risk can here be understood as those exposed to environmental hazards and in exposed land areas. Still another study deals with threats concerning political and societal exclusion of ethnic and vulnerable groups. Education reform should here be seen against the historic background of former Apartheid policies and the need for democratic development with a special emphasis on teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion and perceived threats by teachers in connection with implementing inclusive education.
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| 20. |
- Gustavsson, Anders, 1964-
(författare)
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Therapy in inflammatory bowel disease
- 2012
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The aim of this thesis is to study treatment of inflammatory bowel disease with respect to an acute severe attack of ulcerative colitis and endoscopic balloon dilation in stricturing Crohn’s disease.A retrospective follow-up was made in 158 patients who were given intensive intravenous corticosteroid treatment due a severe, moderate, or mild attack of ulcerative colitis between 1975 and 1982. After 10 years, the colectomy frequency in the severe disease group was 64%, and 49% and28% in the moderate and mild groups, respectively. Severity of the original attack did not influence the subsequent clinical course with respect to colectomy.In 2005, a controlled Swedish–Danish trial of infliximab as rescue therapy in an acute severe attack of steroid refractory ulcerative colitis showed that colectomy frequencies after 3 months were lower in infliximab-treated patients (29%) compared to placebo-treated patients (67%). After 3 years, a statistically significantly lower colectomy frequency remained in patients treated with infliximab (50%) compared to placebo (76%).Between 1989 and 2009, 178 patients underwent endoscopic balloon dilation due to intestinal strictures in Crohn’s disease. Seventy-five patients,with a follow-up of 5 years or longer, underwent dilations due to symptomatic strictures only. After 5 years of follow-up, 39/75 (52%) of the patients had undergone no further intervention or one additional dilation only, and 36% had had surgery. The complication frequency was 5.3%, of which 10 patients (1.3%) required surgery. In 83 patients, we studied whether smoking at diagnosis affected the outcome after index dilation. In the group of active smokers, 31/32 (97%) underwent another intervention compared to 18/33 (55%) in never smokers (HR 2.18, 95% CI: 1.22-3.93,p = 0.01). Clinical parameters such as sex, age at diagnosis, age at first dilation, balloon size, localisation of stricture, treatment with azathioprine and treatment period did not influence outcome.
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| 21. |
- Gustavsson, Magnus, 1972-
(författare)
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Empirical Essays on Earnings Inequality
- 2004
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The thesis consists of four self-contained essays.Essay I decomposes the cross-sectional variance of male annual earnings in Sweden between 1960 and 1990 into permanent and transitory components and compares the results to the U.S. evidence. I find that the transitory variance in Sweden increased until the early 1970s, declined during the remainder of the decade and then rose again during the second half of the 1980s. The permanent variance declined over the whole sample period but its decrease was much more rapid up until the early 1980s than afterwards. Comparing the results for the transitory variance with evidence from the U.S. reveals sharp differences. Most notably, the transitory variance of U.S. earnings rose sharply from the mid 1970s to the mid 1980s. An important explanation for these dissimilarities appears to be labor market institutions. In particular, it is likely that centralized solidarity bargaining in Sweden imposed constraints on earnings instability during the 1970s and early 1980s. Essay II examines changes in the dispersion of permanent and transitory male annual earnings in Sweden between 1991 and 1999. I find that the variance of permanent earnings has increased over this period but that the variance of transitory earnings exhibits no clear trend. The results also show that young workers have the largest dispersion of transitory earnings. Results for wages indicate that increased permanent wage inequality is an important explanation for the increase in permanent earnings inequality.Essay III investigates changes in educational wage differentials in Sweden between 1992 and 2001 and places them in a longer-term perspective. The university wage premium has increased noticeably between 1992 and 2001 while the gymnasium wage premium has been constant. These results, together with previous research for earlier years, suggest that the university wage premium in Sweden has exhibited a clearly positive trend since the early 1980s whilst the gymnasium wage premium has been constant since the mid 1970s. Unlike the 1980s, relative supply changes do not appear to have been responsible for the rise in the university wage premium over the most recent decade.Essay IV (with Per-Anders Edin) investigates the role of skill depreciation in the relationship between work interruptions and subsequent wages. Using a unique longitudinal dataset, the Swedish part of the International Adult Literacy Survey, we are able to analyze changes in literacy skills for individuals as a function of time out of work. In general, we find statistically strong evidence on a negative relationship between work interruptions and skills. Our analysis suggests that depreciation of general (literacy) skills is economically significant. Our estimates imply that a full year of non-employment is associated with skill losses that are equivalent to moving 5 percentiles down the skill distribution.
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| 22. |
- Hedov, Gerth, 1952-
(författare)
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Swedish Parents of Children with Down Syndrome : A study on the initial information and support, and the subsequent daily life
- 2002
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In this study 165 Swedish parents of young children with Downs’s syndrome (DS) were investigated regarding their perception of the quality of the first information and support received after the birth of the child. The parents’ opinions were compared with clinical routines at the paediatric clinics regarding these issues. Strong clinical ambitions fell short, however, since 70 % of the parents felt insufficiently informed; 56 % felt unsupported, and the timing of the disclosure varied between 0 hour to >5 days. On the basis of a grounded theory analysis the parents’ written narratives regarding the quality of the first information and support were analysed to better understand the reasons underlying the parental dissatisfaction. Criticisms were raised by the parents concerning: the low communication skills by professionals; the lack of privacy; too much negative information; and an unmet desire to early meet other DS parents.The implications of being DS parents regarding their daily life were examined by measuring parental health, stress, sense of coherence, employment and sick leave rates. Results were compared with those in a randomly selected group of parents of healthy age-matched children. The similarities between the DS and control parents were more pronounced than the differences regarding divorce rates, siblings in the family, time spent on child care, employment and sick leave rates, and their self-perceived health, stress, and sense of coherence. However, self-perceived health of the DS mothers was impaired and stress was increased. A small group of DS parents (5 mothers and 1 father) had an extremely high rate of sick leave and no such group was seen in the control parents. In addition, the DS mothers stayed at home because of the child’s sickness most frequently and the DS fathers stayed at home for this reason more than control mothers.Conclusions: Existing guidelines for optimal first information and support of new parents of children with DS are not always followed in Sweden. Qualitative clinical improvements from the parents’ perspective are proposed. Most DS parents live an ordinary family life in respect to the measured parameters, but the risk for health deterioration, particularly in DS mothers, might need attention.
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| 23. |
- Hedov, Gerth, 1952-
(författare)
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Swedish Parents of Children with Down Syndrome : A study on the initial information and support, and the subsequent daily life
- 2002
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- In this study 165 Swedish parents of young children with Downs’s syndrome (DS) were investigated regarding their perception of the quality of the first information and support received after the birth of the child. The parents’ opinions were compared with clinical routines at the paediatric clinics regarding these issues. Strong clinical ambitions fell short, however, since 70 % of the parents felt insufficiently informed; 56 % felt unsupported, and the timing of the disclosure varied between 0 hour to >5 days. On the basis of a grounded theory analysis the parents’ written narratives regarding the quality of the first information and support were analysed to better understand the reasons underlying the parental dissatisfaction. Criticisms were raised by the parents concerning: the low communication skills by professionals; the lack of privacy; too much negative information; and an unmet desire to early meet other DS parents.The implications of being DS parents regarding their daily life were examined by measuring parental health, stress, sense of coherence, employment and sick leave rates. Results were compared with those in a randomly selected group of parents of healthy age-matched children. The similarities between the DS and control parents were more pronounced than the differences regarding divorce rates, siblings in the family, time spent on child care, employment and sick leave rates, and their self-perceived health, stress, and sense of coherence. However, self-perceived health of the DS mothers was impaired and stress was increased. A small group of DS parents (5 mothers and 1 father) had an extremely high rate of sick leave and no such group was seen in the control parents. In addition, the DS mothers stayed at home because of the child’s sickness most frequently and the DS fathers stayed at home for this reason more than control mothers.Conclusions: Existing guidelines for optimal first information and support of new parents of children with DS are not always followed in Sweden. Qualitative clinical improvements from the parents’ perspective are proposed. Most DS parents live an ordinary family life in respect to the measured parameters, but the risk for health deterioration, particularly in DS mothers, might need attention.
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| 24. |
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| 25. |
- Kåhlin, Ida, 1977-
(författare)
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Delaktig (även) på äldre dar : Åldrande och delaktighet bland personer med intellektuell funktionsnedsättning som bor i gruppbostad
- 2015
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Participation of people in all ages is one of the main goals in Swedish disability policy. Despite this, ageing and becoming old with intellectual disability has been given very little attention in policy documents and guidelines regarding support and service provided for this group. This thesis aims to explore ageing and participation among older people with intellectual disabilities who live in a group homes in accordance to the Swedish Disability Act. The focus has been on the group of people who were born before or around 1960. This group belongs to a generation that share unique experiences. They have lived a long life with disability, and they have experienced first-hand the development of the Swedish disability policy that started in the 1960s and resulted in today’s disability policy. These experiences carried through life course are likely to influence this group’s opportunities to participate as they age and reach later life. The thesis has a multiple methodological approach. Participant observations were executed and combined with individual semi-structured interviews with older people with intellectual disabilities as well as group home staff. The results of this thesis show that there is a discrepancy between how older people with intellectual disabilities experience ageing and later life and how these in turn are described by the staff. The thesis also reveals how aging and becoming old is not given particular attention to in everyday discussions in the group home, and that aging is understood mainly as a physical phenomenon. The results show that the formal organizational culture of the group home is weak in relation to ageing and becoming old with intellectual disability. This is because the staff perceives a lack of preparation, discussion and working methods on how to support participation among older residents. The results also show, however, that the residents’ age does play an important role for the staff’s perceptions and attitudes regarding participation of the older residents. The concept of participation is described and operationalized as a social contextual doing, and as an aspiration to create a sense of coherence or experience of meaning and security at home. Finally, this thesis underlines that the life course unique to persons growing old with intellectual disabilities may influence the opportunities for and the experience of participation in the group home.
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| 26. |
- Magnusson, Nicola, 1972-
(författare)
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Refugeeship - A project of justification : Claiming asylum in England and Sweden
- 2011
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The aim of this thesis is to explore the asylum process from an experiential perspective, starting in the country of origin, fleeing, claiming asylum and being granted refugee status. The theoretical interest is to contribute with an understanding of how this asylum process impacts on personal meaning-making, focusing on identification and positioning work of the person forced to flee and make an asylum claim. With this purpose in mind, I have remained close to the experiences of the participants talk made visible through interpretative analysis. Drawing on a discursive-psychological approach, 19 interview-cases (10 in England and 9 in Sweden) have been analysed consisting of stories of the migration process: life in the country of origin, fleeing, claiming asylum and being granted refugee status. This talk includes rich description of what this has involved for these participants, in terms of the more existential aspects of this kind of migration, identification and positioning, as well as their attempts to give this process some sort of meaning. This I name refugeeship. The results show that refugeeship is characterised by a multitude of implicit and explicit questionings concerning the refugee’s rights and duties. Implicit questions concerning the refugee’s flight, starting in the country of origin are followed by explicit questions when encountering the official legal system of asylum in the new country, which involves an erosion of sense of self. The refugee stories express what I call the moral career of refugeeship, illustrating the events in refugeeship which are ongoing, though changeable over time and space and incorporate a moral dimension. The refugee finds him or herself continuously justifying the migration, struggling for recognition and convincing ‘Others’ that one can in fact become a contributing member of the new society.
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| 27. |
- Rören, Owe, 1939-
(författare)
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Idioternas tid : Tankestilar inom den tidiga idiotskolan 1840 - 1872
- 2007
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The purpose of this thesis is to increase our knowledge about the thinking of idiocy behind the formation of the first institutional schools for idiots in the Scandinavian countries. The source materials – publications, articles, documents, photos – has been studied and interpreted through a hermeneutic existential method. The final interpretation is connected to Ludwik Fleck´s theory of thought-style and thought-collective. Thought-style in this context has different aspects: The quality or characteristics of the conception or diagnosis of idiocy The ideas about underlying causes The educational, medical and social measures required The expected results or goals The environmental influence Three historical perspectives are traced in the thesis: a biographical history perspective, an educational/medical and a comprehensive perspective of the history of knowledge. The Nordic thinking of idiocy was strongly influenced from French, Swiss and Prussian forerunners. The first efforts in the Nordic countries were attempted by psychiatrists, theologians and teachers for the deaf and dumb. The precursor in Sweden, a woman, had to connect to the available female/religious strategy of the time for her participation. The study concludes that although the activists spoke about “the time of the idiots” it was also a time for the activists to create possibilities for entrepreneurship and professional careers. The medical knowledge of idiocy was in its infancy. The educational progression was moderate and built upon the theories of the time.
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| 28. |
- Visuri, Isabella, 1991-, et al.
(författare)
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Predictors of drug survival : A cohort study comparing anti-tumour necrosis factor agents using the Swedish inflammatory bowel disease quality register
- 2021
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Ingår i: Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. - : Blackwell Science Ltd.. - 0269-2813 .- 1365-2036. ; 54:7, s. 931-943
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background: Whether long-term effectiveness differs between anti-tumour necrosis factor (anti-TNF) agents is unknown.Aims: To examine drug survival of first-line anti-TNF agents and identify predictors of discontinuation. To reduce channelling bias, we also compared drug survival of the second anti-TNF.Methods: Biologic-naive patients (N = 955) recorded in the Swedish IBD Quality Register (SWIBREG) were examined. We used propensity score matching, comparing drug survival over up to three years of follow-up. Cox regression estimated adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs).Results: In Crohn's disease, discontinuation because of lack/loss of response was 32% [95%CI = 26%-38%] for infliximab versus 16% [95%CI = 11%-21%] for adalimumab. Infliximab [vs adalimumab; aHR = 1.96; 95%CI = 1.20-3.21] and colonic disease (L2) [vs no L2; aHR = 2.17; 95% CI = 1.26-3.75] were associated with higher discontinuation rates, whereas normalised CRP at three months [aHR = 0.40; 95% CI = 0.19-0.81] with a lower rate. Consistently, patients who switched from adalimumab to infliximab (vs infliximab to adalimumab) had earlier discontinuation (P = 0.04). Concomitant use of immunomodulators was associated with a lower adverse drug reaction-mediated discontinuation rate [aHR = 0.46; 95% CI = 0.28-0.77], in part explained by fewer infusion reactions [aHR = 0.27; 95% CI = 0.08-0.89]. In ulcerative colitis, the probability of discontinuation because of lack/loss of response was 40% [95% CI = 33%-47%] for infliximab versus 37% [95% CI = 21%-53%] for adalimumab. Disease duration >= 10 years [aHR = 0.25; 95% CI = 0.10-0.58] and normalised CRP after three months [aHR = 0.39; 95% CI = 0.18-0.84] were associated with lower discontinuation rates.Conclusions: Clinical characterisation of patients may aid decision-making on anti-TNF treatment. The consistently shorter drug survival for infliximab (vs adalimumab) in Crohn's disease, suggests a potential difference between the two drugs.
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