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1.
  • Ask, Katrina, et al. (författare)
  • Kinematic gait characteristics of straight line walk in clinically sound dairy cows
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: PLoS ONE. - : Public Library of Science (PLoS). - 1932-6203. ; 16
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The aim of this study is to describe the kinematic gait characteristics of straight line walk in clinically sound dairy cows using body mounted Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) at multiple anatomical locations. The temporal parameters used are speed and non-speed normalized stance duration, bipedal and tripedal support durations, maximal protraction and retraction angles of the distal limbs and vertical displacement curves of the upper body. Gait analysis was performed by letting 17 dairy cows walk in a straight line at their own chosen pace while equipped with IMU sensors on tubera sacrale, left and right tuber coxae (LTC and RTC), back, withers, head, neck and all four lower limbs. Data intervals with stride by stride regularity were selected based on video data. For temporal parameters, the median was calculated and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated based on linear mixed model (LMM) analysis, while for limb and vertical displacement curves, the median and most typical curves were calculated. The temporal parameters and distal limb angles showed consistent results with low variance and LMM analysis showed non-overlapping CI for all temporal parameters. The distal limb angle curves showed a larger and steeper retraction angle range for the distal front limbs compared with the hind limbs. The vertical displacement curves of the sacrum, withers, LTC and RTC showed a consistent sinusoidal pattern while the head, back and collar curves were less consistent and showed more variation between and within cows. This kinematic description might allow to objectively differentiate between normal and lame gait in the future and determine the best anatomical location for sensor attachment for lameness detection purposes.
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2.
  • Ask, Katrina, et al. (författare)
  • Performance of four equine pain scales and their association to movement asymmetry in horses with induced orthopedic pain
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: Frontiers in Veterinary Science. - : Frontiers Media SA. - 2297-1769. ; 9
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Objective: This study investigated the relationship between orthopedic pain experienced at rest, and degree of movement asymmetry during trot in horses with induced reversible acute arthritis. Orthopedic pain was assessed with the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS), the Equine Utrecht University Scale of Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-FAP), the Equine Pain Scale (EPS), and the Composite Orthopedic Pain Scale (CPS). Reliability and diagnostic accuracy were evaluated with intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and area under the curve (AUC).Study design and animals: Eight healthy horses were included in this experimental study, with each horse acting as its own control.Methods: Orthopedic pain was induced by intra-articular lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration. Serial pain assessments were performed before induction and during pain progression and regression, where three observers independently and simultaneously assessed pain at rest with the four scales. Movement asymmetry was measured once before induction and a minimum of four times after induction, using objective gait analysis.Results: On average 6.6 (standard deviation 1.2) objective gait analyses and 12.1 (2.4) pain assessments were performed per horse. The ICC for each scale was 0.75 (CPS), 0.65 (EPS), 0.52 (HGS), and 0.43 (EQUUS-FAP). Total pain scores of all scales were significantly associated with an increase in movement asymmetry (R2 values ranging from −0.0649 to 0.493); with CPS pain scores being most closely associated with movement asymmetry. AUC varied between scales and observers, and CPS was the only scale where all observers had a good diagnostic accuracy (AUC > 0.72).Conclusions and clinical relevance: This study identified significant associations between pain experienced at rest and degree of movement asymmetry for all scales. Pain scores obtained using CPS were most closely associated with movement asymmetry. CPS was also the most accurate and reliable pain scale. All scales had varying linear and non-linear relations between total pain scores and movement asymmetry, illustrating challenges with orthopedic pain assessment during rest in subtly lame horses since movement asymmetry needs to be rather high before total pain score increase.
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3.
  • Braganca, F. M. Serra, et al. (författare)
  • Improving gait classification in horses by using inertial measurement unit (IMU) generated data and machine learning
  • 2020
  • Ingår i: Scientific Reports. - : Springer Nature. - 2045-2322. ; 10:1
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • For centuries humans have been fascinated by the natural beauty of horses in motion and their different gaits. Gait classification (GC) is commonly performed through visual assessment and reliable, automated methods for real-time objective GC in horses are warranted. In this study, we used a full body network of wireless, high sampling-rate sensors combined with machine learning to fully automatically classify gait. Using data from 120 horses of four different domestic breeds, equipped with seven motion sensors, we included 7576 strides from eight different gaits. GC was trained using several machine-learning approaches, both from feature-extracted data and from raw sensor data. Our best GC model achieved 97% accuracy. Our technique facilitated accurate, GC that enables in-depth biomechanical studies and allows for highly accurate phenotyping of gait for genetic research and breeding. Our approach lends itself for potential use in other quadrupedal species without the need for developing gait/animal specific algorithms.
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4.
  • Byström, Anna, et al. (författare)
  • Asymmetries of horses walking and trotting on treadmill with and without rider
  • 2020
  • Ingår i: Equine Veterinary Journal. - : Wiley. - 0425-1644 .- 2042-3306. ; 53, s. 157-166
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Background Left-right movement symmetry is a highly desirable characteristic in sport horses.Objectives This study compared movement symmetry in well-trained dressage horses in unridden and unrestrained position and ridden in a dressage frame, and investigated possible associations between gaits.Study design Experimental study.Methods Seven sound, high-level dressage horses were measured at walk and sitting trot on a treadmill at several speeds under two conditions: with and without rider. Left-right differences in stance duration, stance protraction and retraction based on longitudinal hoof positions, ipsilateral limb tracking, minimum and maximum vertical positions of the dorsal spinous processes of the sixth thoracic (T6), third sacral vertebrae (S3) and wing of atlas, and vertical ground reaction forces were calculated and analysed in mixed models.Results At walk, five body variables indicated increased asymmetry in the ridden condition compared with unridden condition: forelimb stance duration (unridden/ridden left-right differences 9 vs 13 ms; P = .008), forelimb stance protraction (P = .004), stance retraction (P = .001) and first force peak (P = .003), and hindlimb stance retraction (P = .01). At trot, six body variables were more asymmetrical in the ridden condition: forelimb stance duration (2.5 vs 3.8 ms, P = .004); hindlimb stance protraction (P < .0001) and retraction (P = .01), T6 minimum (4 vs 6 mm, P = .001), T6 maximum (9 vs 11 mm, P = .01) and S3 maximum (6 vs 12 mm, P < .001). Five variables had significant associations between asymmetries at walk and trot, but only three demonstrated a positive slope.Main limitations A limited number of horses and riders were studied. Measurements were performed on a treadmill.Conclusions High-level horses moved slightly more asymmetrically when ridden in a dressage frame than in the unridden condition.
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5.
  • Byström, Anna, et al. (författare)
  • Biomechanical findings in horses showing asymmetrical vertical excursions of the withers at walk
  • 2018
  • Ingår i: PLoS ONE. - : Public Library of Science (PLoS). - 1932-6203. ; 13
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The walk and trot are inherently symmetrical gaits, making them potentially suitable for the detection of left-right asymmetries. The aims of this study were to describe asymmetrical vertical excursions of the withers at walk in non-lame high-level dressage horses and to seek associations between these asymmetric movements and other kinematic variables and vertical ground reaction forces (vGRFs). Seven dressage horses, judged clinically as being sound, walked unridden and unrestrained on a treadmill with an integrated force measuring system (480 Hz), from which spatiotemporal and vGRF variables were extracted. Markers were tracked by 12 infrared cameras (240 Hz). The vertical position of the sixth thoracic vertebra (T6), limb protraction and retraction distances throughout stance, and global limb lengths were determined. Contralateral trial-mean differences were calculated, including difference in T6 minimum vertical position between contralateral steps (T6minDiff). Mixed models were used to study associations between symmetry parameters. Trial-mean T6minDiff ranged between 0.3-23 mm. Of the seven horses, five consistently dropped the withers more in early left forelimb stance, one was fairly symmetrical, and one dropped the withers more in early right forelimb stance. Comparisons between contralateral limbs showed the following associations. The forelimb that was retracted when T6min was lowest showed greater retraction at toe-off (1 mm increase predicted 0.17 mm T6minDiff increase) and shorter stance duration (1 ms decrease predicted 0.3 mm T6minDiff increase). The hind limb that was in midstance when T6min was lowest showed a greater range of motion during the stance phase (1 mm increase in protraction or retraction predicted 0.2 mm T6minDiff increase). The haunches were displaced away from the side of the forelimb that was protracted when T6min was lowest (1 mm lateral shift predicted 0.07 mm T6minDiff increase). Forelimb and hind limb vGRF parameters were non-significant. Asymmetry of vertical withers movement in horses assessed as being sound at trot was related to a complex pattern of asymmetries in spatiotemporal variables throughout the stride cycle rather than to vertical load redistribution between the forelimbs. This suggests that the asymmetry may be due to inherent laterality rather than weight-bearing lameness.
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6.
  • Byström, Anna, et al. (författare)
  • Intersegmental strategies in frontal plane in moderately-skilled riders analyzed in ridden and un-mounted situations
  • 2019
  • Ingår i: Human Movement Science. - : Elsevier BV. - 0167-9457 .- 1872-7646. ; 66, s. 511-520
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The symmetry of the rider is highly relevant, and in the equestrian community it is generally thought that a symmetrical rider has a better possibility to influence the horse in an optimal way. The aim of the study was to analyse and compare frontal plane kinematics of the core body segments in ten riders while riding and while rocking a balance chair from side-to-side. It was hypothesized that the riders were asymmetrical in relation to their intersegmental strategies when comparing between left and right directions and that individual riders would display the same postural strategies when riding and when rocking the balance chair. Ten moderately-skilled riders wore a full-body marker set that was tracked by a motion capture system as they rocked a balance chair from side to side. Inertial measurement units attached to the head, trunk and pelvis were used to measure the segmental movements while riding in left and right directions. Roll rotation data for head, trunk and pelvis were averaged over available strides/cycles. Results from mixed models showed that the riders were asymmetric when comparing riding in left vs right directions, for example the trunk was rotated 19 degrees to the right on the right circle and 14 degrees to the left on the left circle, on average. Riders adopted the same asymmetrical posture whether they were riding in the left or right direction on straight lines, circles or leg yielding. A significant relationship was found between postural asymmetries when riding and when rocking the balance chair, one degree of pelvis or head roll asymmetry on the chair predicted 2.4 (SE 0.9) degrees of asymmetry while riding. Future studies may investigate the value of seated, off-horse postural training for improving rider symmetry and thereby equestrian performance.
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7.
  • Byström, Anna, et al. (författare)
  • Lateral movement of the saddle relative to the equine spine in rising and sitting trot on a treadmill
  • 2018
  • Ingår i: PLoS ONE. - : Public Library of Science (PLoS). - 1932-6203. ; 13
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Saddle slip, defined as a progressive lateral displacement of the saddle during ridden exercise, has recently been given attention in the scientific press as a potential sign of lameness. The aim of this study was to objectively quantify the normal lateral movement (oscillations) of the saddle relative to the horse in non-lame horses, and associate this movement to the movements of the horse and rider. Data from seven Warmblood dressage horses competing at Grand Prix (n = 6) or FEI Intermediate (n = 1) level, ridden by their usual riders, were used. Simultaneous kinetic, kinematic and saddle pressure measurements were conducted during sitting and rising trot on a force-measuring treadmill. The maximum lateral movement of the caudal part of the saddle relative to the horse's spine (MAX) was determined for each diagonal step. A mixed model was applied, with MAX as outcome, and T6 and S3 vertical position, rigid body rotation angles (roll, pitch, yaw) of the horse's and rider's pelvis, vertical ground reaction forces, saddle force, and rider position (rising in rising trot, sitting in rising trot or sitting in sitting trot) as explanatory variables. The least square means for MAX were 14.3 (SE 4.7) mm and 23.9 (SE 4.7) mm for rising and sitting in rising trot, and 20.3 (SE 4.7) mm for sitting trot. A 10 mm increase in maximum pelvic height at push off increased MAX by 1.4 mm (p<0.0001). One degree increase in rider pelvis roll decreased MAX 1.1 mm, and one degree increase in rider pelvis yaw increased MAX 0.7 mm (both p<0.0001). The linear relationships found between MAX and movements of both horse and rider implies that both horse and rider movement asymmetries are reflected in the lateral movements or oscillations of the saddle in non-lame horses.
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8.
  • Egenvall, Agneta, et al. (författare)
  • Days-lost to training and competition in relation to workload in 263 elite show-jumping horses in four European countries
  • 2013
  • Ingår i: Preventive Veterinary Medicine. - : Elsevier BV. - 0167-5877 .- 1873-1716. ; 112, s. 387-400
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Orthopaedic, or other, injuries in sports medicine can be quantified using the ‘days-lost to training’ concept. Both the training regimen and the surface used in training and racing can affect the health of racehorses. Our aim was to associate ‘days-lost to training’ in elite-level show-jumpers to horse characteristics, training and management strategies, and the time spent working on various training and competition surfaces. We designed a longitudinal study of professional riders in four European countries. Data were recorded using training diaries. Reasons for days-lost were classified into non-acute and acute orthopaedic, medical, hoof-related, and undefined. We produced descriptive statistics of training durations, relative to type of training, surfaces used, and days-lost. We created zero-inflated negative-binomial random-effects models using the overall days-lost as outcome. In the whole dataset, duration variables related to training surfaces were analysed as independent. The Swedish data only were also used to test whether duration variables were related to competition surfaces. Thirty-one riders with 263 horses provided data on 39,028 days at risk. Of these, 2357 (6.0%) were days-lost (55% and 22% of these were due to non-acute and acute orthopaedic injuries, respectively) in 126 horses. In the all-country model, controlling for season, a significant variable was country. Switzerland and the UK had lower incidence-rate ratios (IR) compared to Sweden (IRs 0.2 and 0.03, respectively). Horses with previous orthopaedic problems had almost a doubled IR (1.8) of days-lost due to orthopaedic injury, compared to baseline. If the horse had jumping training more than 1 minute per day at risk the IRs were 6.9-7 (compared to less than this amount of time); this was, however, likely an effect of a small baseline. Variation in training was a protective factor with a dose-response relationship; the category with the highest variation had an IR of 0.1. In the Swedish model, controlling for season, there was an association of year (IR 2.8 year 2010). Further, if the horse rested >17-25% of the days at risk, or >33% of the DAR2, had IRs 3.5 and 3,0, compared to less time. Horses ≥6 years had IRs of 1.8-2.0, compared to younger horses. Limited training use of sand surface was a risk-factor (IR 2.2; >4≤12 min/day at risk), compared to not training on sand. Training/competing on sand-wood was a protective factor (IRs 0.4-0.5) compared to not using this surface.
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9.
  • Egenvall, Agneta, et al. (författare)
  • The Descriptions and Attitudes of Riders and Arena Owners to 656 Equestrian Sport Surfaces in Sweden
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: Frontiers in Veterinary Science. - : Frontiers Media SA. - 2297-1769. ; 8
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Horses in equestrian sports are commonly trained in arenas with prepared footing. Information on the number and variants of such arenas is generally unknown. This paper provides an overview of the primary construction types of riding surfaces in Sweden including details on composition, constructions principles, usage frequency, maintenance, and cost of operation as well as to investigate rider perception of the ideal arena properties using a large population of riders. Data on 656 equestrian surfaces in Sweden obtained up to 2014 are presented, of which 373 were outdoor and 283 were indoor arenas. Dressage and show-jumping were the main disciplines conducted in the arenas. Sand-mineral arenas were most common outdoors and sand-woodchips arenas most common indoors, followed by sand-fibre arenas and even fewer synthetic arenas. Comparing the three most common arena types, dragging was most often done on sand-woodchips and sand-fibre arenas. Harrowing was less often done on sand-mineral arenas compared to sand-woodchips and sand-fibre arenas. Combining dragging, harrowing, deep harrowing, and rolling, arenas with higher usage were maintained more frequently, compared to those used less frequently. It was commonly claimed that the top-layer needs renovation every other-4th year or every 5th to 10th year. Few respondents allocated more than 10,000 SEK in yearly maintenance costs, with the exception for sand-woodchips and sand-fibre arenas followed by synthetic arenas. The shortest duration perceived between required renovations was found for sand-woodchips top-layer arenas. Ideal surface properties were evaluated by 3,158 riders. Dressage and show-jumping riders differed somewhat regarding ideal spans of functional arena properties: for impact firmness, responsiveness, and grip. The current study likely included well-utilised arenas, compared to those less well-utilised. The resources necessary to keep an arena consistent over time seemed underestimated. Knowledge of maintenance and priorities for arenas are important to users and arenas managers, be they construction companies or arena managers in order to maximise the outcome of efforts for arena improvement and optimise locomotor health for horses that use them. Further, many arenas were new and research into organic arena management is important, especially if equestrians continue to build and renew arena surfaces.
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11.
  • Engell, Maria Terese, et al. (författare)
  • Head, trunk and pelvic kinematics in the frontal plane in un-mounted horseback riders rocking a balance chair from side-to-side
  • 2018
  • Ingår i: Comparative Exercise Physiology. - 1755-2540 .- 1755-2559. ; 14, s. 249-259
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • For efficient rider-horse communication, the rider needs to maintain a balanced position on the horse, allowing independent and controlled movements of the rider’s body segments. The rider’s balance will most likely be negatively affected by postural asymmetries. The aims of this study were to evaluate inter-segmental symmetry of movements of the rider’s pelvis, trunk, and head segments in the frontal plane while rocking a balance chair from side to side and to compare this to the rider’s frontal plane symmetry when walking. Frontal plane rotations (roll) of the pelvis, trunk and head segments and relative translations between the segments were analysed in twenty moderately-skilled riders seated on a balance chair and rocking it from side to side. Three-dimensional kinematic data were collected using motion capture video. Principal component analysis and linear regression were used to evaluate the data. None of the riders displayed a symmetrical right-left pattern of frontal plane rotation and translation in any of their core body segments. The intersegmental pattern of asymmetries varied to a high degree between individuals. The first three principal components explained the majority of between-rider variation in these patterns (89%). A significant relationship was found indicating that during walking, when foot eversion was present on one side, pelvic/trunk roll during rocking the chair was asymmetric and larger to that same side (P=0.02, slope=0.95 in degrees). The inter-individual variation in the rider’s intersegmental strategies when rocking a balance chair was markedly large. However, there was a significant association to the rider’s foot pattern while walking, suggesting consistent intra-individual patterns over multiple situations. Although further studies are needed to confirm associations between the findings in this study and rider asymmetry while riding, riders’ postural control can likely be improved and this may enhance their sport performance.
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12.
  • Haubro Andersen, Pia, et al. (författare)
  • Towards Machine Recognition of Facial Expressions of Pain in Horses
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: Animals. - : MDPI. - 2076-2615. ; 11:6
  • Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Simple Summary Facial activity can convey valid information about the experience of pain in a horse. However, scoring of pain in horses based on facial activity is still in its infancy and accurate scoring can only be performed by trained assessors. Pain in humans can now be recognized reliably from video footage of faces, using computer vision and machine learning. We examine the hurdles in applying these technologies to horses and suggest two general approaches to automatic horse pain recognition. The first approach involves automatically detecting objectively defined facial expression aspects that do not involve any human judgment of what the expression "means". Automated classification of pain expressions can then be done according to a rule-based system since the facial expression aspects are defined with this information in mind. The other involves training very flexible machine learning methods with raw videos of horses with known true pain status. The upside of this approach is that the system has access to all the information in the video without engineered intermediate methods that have filtered out most of the variation. However, a large challenge is that large datasets with reliable pain annotation are required. We have obtained promising results from both approaches. Automated recognition of human facial expressions of pain and emotions is to a certain degree a solved problem, using approaches based on computer vision and machine learning. However, the application of such methods to horses has proven difficult. Major barriers are the lack of sufficiently large, annotated databases for horses and difficulties in obtaining correct classifications of pain because horses are non-verbal. This review describes our work to overcome these barriers, using two different approaches. One involves the use of a manual, but relatively objective, classification system for facial activity (Facial Action Coding System), where data are analyzed for pain expressions after coding using machine learning principles. We have devised tools that can aid manual labeling by identifying the faces and facial keypoints of horses. This approach provides promising results in the automated recognition of facial action units from images. The second approach, recurrent neural network end-to-end learning, requires less extraction of features and representations from the video but instead depends on large volumes of video data with ground truth. Our preliminary results suggest clearly that dynamics are important for pain recognition and show that combinations of recurrent neural networks can classify experimental pain in a small number of horses better than human raters.
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13.
  • Hellberg, Victoria, et al. (författare)
  • Cisplatin and oxaliplatin toxicity : importance of cochlear kinetics as a determinant for ototoxicity
  • 2009
  • Ingår i: Journal of the National Cancer Institute. - Cary : Oxford University Press. - 0027-8874 .- 1460-2105. ; 101:1, s. 37-47
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • BACKGROUND: Cisplatin is a cornerstone anticancer drug with pronounced ototoxicity, whereas oxaliplatin, a platinum derivative with a different clinical profile, is rarely ototoxic. This difference has not been explained.METHODS: In HCT-116 cells, cisplatin (20 microM)-induced apoptosis was reduced by a calcium chelator from 9.9-fold induction (95% confidence interval [CI] = 8.1- to 11.7-fold), to 3.1-fold induction (95% CI = 2.0- to 4.2-fold) and by superoxide scavenging from 9.3-fold (95% CI = 8.8- to 9.8-fold), to 5.1-fold (95% CI = 4.4- to 5.8-fold). A guinea pig model (n = 23) was used to examine pharmacokinetics. Drug concentrations were determined by liquid chromatography with post-column derivatization. The total platinum concentration in cochlear tissue was determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Drug pharmacokinetics was assessed by determining the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC). Statistical tests were two-sided.RESULTS: In HCT-116 cells, cisplatin (20 microM)-induced apoptosis was reduced by a calcium chelator from 9.9-fold induction (95% confidence interval [CI] = 8.1- to 11.7-fold to 3.1-fold induction) (95% CI = 2.0- to 4.2-fold) and by superoxide scavenging (from 9.3-fold, 95% CI = 8.8- to 9.8-fold, to 5.1-fold, 95% CI = 4.4- to 5.8-fold). Oxaliplatin (20 microM)-induced apoptosis was unaffected by calcium chelation (from 7.1- to 6.2-fold induction) and by superoxide scavenging (from 5.9- to 5.6-fold induction). In guinea pig cochlea, total platinum concentration (0.12 vs 0.63 microg/kg, respectively, P = .008) and perilymphatic drug concentrations (238 vs 515 microM x minute, respectively, P < .001) were lower after intravenous oxaliplatin treatment (16.6 mg/kg) than after equimolar cisplatin treatment (12.5 mg/kg). However, after a non-ototoxic cisplatin dose (5 mg/kg) or the same oxaliplatin dose (16.6 mg/kg), the AUC for perilymphatic concentrations was similar, indicating that the two drugs have different cochlear pharmacokinetics.CONCLUSION: Cisplatin- but not oxaliplatin-induced apoptosis involved superoxide-related pathways. Lower cochlear uptake of oxaliplatin than cisplatin appears to be a major explanation for its lower ototoxicity.
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14.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Adaptation strategies of horses with induced forelimb lameness walking on a treadmill
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: Equine Veterinary Journal. - : Wiley. - 0425-1644 .- 2042-3306. ; 53, s. 600-611
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Background There is a paucity of research describing the gait pattern of lame horses at the walk. Objectives To describe the changes in motion pattern and vertical ground reaction forces (GRFz) in horses with induced forelimb lameness at the walk and compare those changes with the changes observed at the trot. Study design Experimental study. Methods In 10 clinically sound Warmblood horses, moderate forelimb lameness was induced using a sole pressure model followed by trot and walk on a treadmill. Kinematic data were collected using 3D optical motion capture (OMC), and GRFz by an instrumented treadmill. Mixed models were used to compare sound baseline versus forelimb lameness (significance was set atP < .05). Results Lameness induction significantly reduced peak GRFz on the second force peak, and vertical impulse in the lame limb. Stride and stance duration in all limbs were reduced. Lameness significantly affected the vertical movement symmetry of the head and withers. Maximum limb retraction angle, fetlock extension and protraction speed were reduced in the lame limb. Body centre of mass (COM) translation was reduced in the side-to-side direction and increased in the vertical and fore-aft directions. Several compensatory kinetic and kinematic changes were observed in the nonlame limbs. The observed changes in both kinetics and kinematics were generally smaller at walk with fewer variables being affected, compared to the trot. Main limitations Only one degree and type of orthopaedic pain (sole pressure) was studied. Conclusions Compensatory strategies of forelimb lameness at the walk include alteration of several kinetic and kinematic parameters and have some specific patterns and inter-individual differences that are not seen at the trot. However, much like at the trot, head movement and forelimb vertical force symmetry seem to be the most useful parameters to detect forelimb lameness at walk.
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15.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Adaptation strategies of the Icelandic horse with induced forelimb lameness at walk, trot and tölt
  • 2024
  • Ingår i: Equine Veterinary Journal. - 0425-1644 .- 2042-3306. ; 56, s. 617-630
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Background and objective Lameness assessment in the gaited Icelandic horse is complex. We aimed to describe their kinematic and temporal adaptation strategies in response to forelimb lameness at walk, trot and tolt.Study designIn vivo experiment.Methods Ten clinically non-lame Icelandic horses were measured before and after reversible forelimb lameness induction. Upper body and limb kinematics were measured using 11 inertial measurement units mounted on the poll, withers, pelvis (tubera sacrale) and all four limbs and hoofs (Equimoves (R), 500 Hz). Horses were measured on a straight line at walk and trot in-hand and at walk, trot and tolt while ridden. Linear mixed models were used to compare baseline and lame conditions (random factor = 'horse'), and results are presented as the difference in estimated marginal means or percentage of change.Results Lameness induction significantly (p < 0.05) increased head vertical movement asymmetry at walk (HDmin/HDmaxHAND: 18.8/5.7 mm, HDmin/HDmaxRIDDEN: 9.8/0.3 mm) and trot (HDmin/HDmaxHAND: 18.1/7.8 mm, HDmin/HDmaxRIDDEN: 24.0/9.3 mm). At the tolt, however, HDmin did not change significantly (1.1 mm), but HDmax increased by 11.2 mm (p < 0.05). Furthermore, pelvis vertical movement asymmetry (PDmax) increased by 4.9 mm, sound side dissociation decreased (-8.3%), and sound diagonal dissociation increased (6.5%). Other temporal stride variables were also affected, such as increased stance duration of both forelimbs at walk, tolt and in-hand trot.Main limitations Only one degree of lameness (mild) was induced with an acute lameness model.Conclusions Classical forelimb lameness metrics, such as vertical head and withers movement asymmetry, were less valuable at tolt compared to walk and trot, except for HDmax. Therefore, it is advised to primarily use the walk and trot to detect and quantify forelimb lameness in the Icelandic horse.
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16.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Automatic detection of break-over phase onset in horses using hoof-mounted inertial measurement unit sensors
  • 2020
  • Ingår i: PLoS ONE. - : Public Library of Science (PLoS). - 1932-6203. ; 15
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • A prolonged break-over phase might be an indication of a variety of musculoskeletal disorders and can be measured with optical motion capture (OMC) systems, inertial measurement units (IMUs) and force plates. The aim of this study was to present two algorithms for automatic detection of the break-over phase onset from the acceleration and angular velocity signals measured by hoof-mounted IMUs in walk and trot on a hard surface. The performance of these algorithms was evaluated by internal validation with an OMC system and a force plate separately. Seven Warmblood horses were equipped with two wireless IMUs which were attached to the lateral wall of the right front (RF) and hind (RH) hooves. Horses were walked and trotted over a force plate for internal validation while simultaneously the 3D position of three reflective markers, attached to lateral heel, lateral toe and lateral coronet of each hoof, were measured by six infrared cameras of an OMC system. The performance of the algorithms was evaluated by linear mixed model analysis. The acceleration algorithm was the most accurate with an accuracy between -9 and 23 ms and a precision around 24 ms (against OMC system), and an accuracy between -37 and 20 ms and a precision around 29 ms (against force plate), depending on gait and hoof. This algorithm seems promising for quantification of the break-over phase onset although the applicability for clinical purposes, such as lameness detection and evaluation of trimming and shoeing techniques, should be investigated more in-depth.
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17.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Automatic hoof-on and -off detection in horses using hoof-mounted inertial measurement unit sensors
  • 2020
  • Ingår i: PLoS ONE. - : Public Library of Science (PLoS). - 1932-6203. ; 15
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • For gait classification, hoof-on and hoof-off events are fundamental locomotion characteristics of interest. These events can be measured with inertial measurement units (IMUs) which measure the acceleration and angular velocity in three directions. The aim of this study was to present two algorithms for automatic detection of hoof-events from the acceleration and angular velocity signals measured by hoof-mounted IMUs in walk and trot on a hard surface. Seven Warmblood horses were equipped with two wireless IMUs, which were attached to the lateral wall of the right front (RF) and hind (RH) hooves. Horses were walked and trotted on a lead over a force plate for internal validation. The agreement between the algorithms for the acceleration and angular velocity signals with the force plate was evaluated by Bland Altman analysis and linear mixed model analysis. These analyses were performed for both hoof-on and hoof-off detection and for both algorithms separately. For the hoof-on detection, the angular velocity algorithm was the most accurate with an accuracy between 2.39 and 12.22 ms and a precision of around 13.80 ms, depending on gait and hoof. For hoof-off detection, the acceleration algorithm was the most accurate with an accuracy of 3.20 ms and precision of 6.39 ms, independent of gait and hoof. These algorithms look highly promising for gait classification purposes although the applicability of these algorithms should be investigated under different circumstances, such as different surfaces and different hoof trimming conditions.
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18.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Comparing subjective and objective evaluation of show jumping competition and warm-up arena surfaces
  • 2017
  • Ingår i: Veterinary Journal. - : Elsevier BV. - 1090-0233 .- 1532-2971. ; 227, s. 49-57
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The development of safety and quality standards for equestrian surfaces needs to be based on objective, repeatable measurements which allow comparisons between surfaces. These measurements should incorporate the assessment of surface performance by riders. This study provides data from objective and subjective assessment of functional properties of high-level show jumping competition and warm-up arenas. Twenty-five arenas in nine international show jumping events were evaluated by mechanical in situ testing with a surface tester, rider assessments using visual analogue scales (198 riders provided 749 arena evaluations), descriptions of arena constructions and by laboratory tests of surface material. Mixed models were used to present subjective evaluation of rider perception of the functional properties for each arena while controlling for rider and event. The association between objective and subjective assessments were also explored creating mixed models, controlling for rider and event.Mechanical measurements of impact firmness, and to a lesser extent cushioning and grip, had a significant positive association with the riders' perception. Responsiveness as assessed by the Orono biomechanical surface tester (OBST) was negatively associated with the riders' perceptions, which suggests riders and the OBST had different concepts of this functional property and that further developments of the OBST might be necessary. Objectively measured uniformity showed no useful association with riders' perception. Even though arena assessments were made by top level riders, a substantial inter-rider variation was demonstrated. (C) 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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19.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Continuous versus discrete data analysis for gait evaluation of horses with induced bilateral hindlimb lameness
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: Equine Veterinary Journal. - : Wiley. - 0425-1644 .- 2042-3306. ; 54, s. 626-633
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Background Gait kinematics measured during equine gait analysis are typically evaluated by analysing (asymmetry-based) discrete variables (eg, peak values) obtained from continuous kinematic signals (eg, timeseries of datapoints). However, when used for the assessment of complex cases of lameness, such as bilateral lameness, discrete variable analysis might overlook relevant functional adaptations. Objectives The overall aim of this paper is to compare continuous and discrete data analysis techniques to evaluate kinematic gait adaptations to lameness. Study design Method comparison. Methods Sixteen healthy Shetland ponies, enrolled in a research programme in which osteochondral defects were created on the medial trochlear ridges of both femurs, were used in this study. Kinematic data were collected at trot on a treadmill before and at 3 and 6 months after surgical intervention. Statistical parametric mapping and linear mixed models were used to compare kinematic variables between and within timepoints. Results Both continuous and discrete data analyses identified changes in pelvis and forelimb kinematics. Discrete data analyses showed significant changes in hindlimb and back kinematics, where such differences were not found to be significant by continuous data analysis. In contrast, continuous data analysis provided additional information on the timing and duration of the differences found. Main limitations A limited number of ponies were included. Conclusions The use of continuous data provides additional information regarding gait adaptations to bilateral lameness that is complementary to the analysis of discrete variables. The main advantage lies in the additional information regarding time dependence and duration of adaptations, which offers the opportunity to identify functional adaptations during all phases of the stride cycle, not just the events related to peak values.
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20.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Effect of superficial harrowing on surface properties of sand with rubber and waxed-sand with fibre riding arena surfaces: a preliminary study
  • 2015
  • Ingår i: Veterinary Journal. - : Elsevier BV. - 1090-0233 .- 1532-2971. ; 203, s. 59-64
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • A recent epidemiological study identified various aspects of arena surfaces and arena surface maintenance that were related to risk of injury in horses and that arena maintenance is important in reducing injury risk. However, there has been little research into how properties of arena surfaces change with harrowing. This study aimed to compare the properties of different arena surface types pre- and post-harrowing. The Orono Biomechanical Surface Tester fitted with accelerometers and a single- and a three-axis load cell was used to test 11 arenas with two different surfaces types, sand with rubber (SR) and waxed-sand with fibre (WSF). Three drop tests were carried out at 10 standardised locations on each arena. Mixed models were created to assess the effect of surface type, pre- or post-harrowing, and drop number on the properties of the surface, including maximum horizontal deceleration, maximum vertical deceleration, maximum vertical load and maximum horizontal load.Post-harrowing, none of the parameters were altered significantly on SR. On WSF, maximum vertical deceleration and maximum vertical load significantly decreased post-harrowing. The differences in the effects of superficial harrowing on SR and WSF could be attributed to the different compositions and sizes of the surface material. The results suggest that different maintenance techniques may be more suitable for different surface types and that the effects of superficial harrowing are short-lived due to the rapid re-compaction of the surface with repeated drops on WSF. Further work is required to determine the effects of other maintenance techniques, and on other surface types. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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21.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Equestrian surfaces – a guide
  • 2014
  • Bok (populärvet., debatt m.m.)abstract
    • Equestrian arena surfaces are a major investment for stable owners, riding clubs and private horse owners. With the growth of equestrian sport in recent decades, both in terms of financial turnover and number of participants, demands on and expectations on equestrian surfaces have increased. Surfaces are expected to promote both performance and soundness. Scientific testing of equine surfaces was first developed within Thoroughbred and Standardbred racing, where for decades scientists have studied associations between orthopaedic injury and surface properties. The background of biomechanical research into equine surfaces is described in more detail in the foreword. Thanks to these studies the information in this guide is supported by scientific data and on-going research. The guide also utilises advice from international arena consultants and equestrian professionals with years of practical experience of building and maintaining surfaces. The guide is aimed at those who want to build or renovate a riding arena, or those who require more knowledge about riding surfaces. Furthermore the guide provides advice on building and maintaining an indoor or outdoor arena. Many equestrians discuss and want an answer to what is ”the best” riding surface. As this guide shows, it is wiser to talk about a ‘surface that is most suited to your and your horse’s needs’, and that how well it works will also depend on how you treat it.
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22.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Hoof accelerations at hoof-surface impact for stride types and functional limb types relevant to show jumping horses
  • 2013
  • Ingår i: Veterinary Journal. - : Elsevier BV. - 1090-0233 .- 1532-2971. ; 198, s. E27-E32
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Increased knowledge of the influence of stride type on hoof impact accelerations for fore and hind limbs could lead to a more complete picture of hoof–ground interactions in equine athletes. Hoof accelerations were quantified for each hoof of five show jumping horses using two orthogonal single axis ± 250 g accelerometers. Accelerations were recorded when cantering horses jumped fences of varying types (upright and oxer) and heights (90–130 cm) on three different surface conditions. Strides were identified as normal canter strides, take-off strides and landing strides. Descriptive hoof impact parameters were maximal vertical deceleration (MaZ), range of maximum fore-aft acceleration and deceleration (RaX), quotient of acceleration vectors (arctangent for RaX/MaZ) and hoof breaking duration (time from MaZ to first level of <0.042 g absolute fore-aft acceleration). The highest hoof impact accelerations occurred during the takeoff stride (mean MaZ over limbs 52.6–91.6 g vs. all-stride mean 39.8 g; mean RaX 63.9–80.5 g vs. all-stride mean 50.7 g). At the jump landing, the forelimbs also experienced high MaZ (46.8 and 49.0 g) of the same order of magnitude as the forelimbs at the take-off. Non-lead limbs had higher MaZ in the normal canter stride, comparing within forelimb and hind limb pairs, and the reverse relationship occurred for RaX and for the quotient of acceleration vectors. The systematic variation introduced by limb and stride type suggests that these gait parameters are important to understand in a sport-specific context for horse surfaces, especially in the development of standardised testing equipment that simulates horse–surface interactions.
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23.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Kinematic characteristics of hoof landing in jumping horses at elite level
  • 2010
  • Ingår i: Equine Veterinary Journal. - : Wiley. - 0425-1644 .- 2042-3306. ; 42, s. 462-467
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The landing and braking characteristics of the hooves varied substantially between hind-, fore-, trailing and leading limbs. Developing mechanical testing devices for arena surfaces, this fairly wide range of biomechanical events must be considered, in order to simulate the horse-surface interaction.
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24.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Modelling fore- and hindlimb peak vertical force differences in trotting horses using upper body kinematic asymmetry variables
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: Journal of Biomechanics. - : Elsevier BV. - 0021-9290 .- 1873-2380. ; 137
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Differences in peak vertical ground reaction forces (dFzpeak) between contralateral forelimbs and hindlimbs are considered the gold standard for quantifying weight-bearing lameness. However, measuring kinematics for the same purpose is more common and practical. Vertical movement asymmetries (VMA) of the horse's upper body have previously been correlated to fore- and hindlimb lameness. But the combined response of head, withers and pelvis VMA to fore- and hindlimb dFzpeak has not yet been thoroughly investigated. Deriving the kinetic responses from kinematics would help the interpretation and understanding of quantified weight-bearing lameness.In this retrospective study, 103 horses with a wide range of fore- and hindlimb dFzpeak had been trotted on a force-measuring treadmill synchronized with an optical motion capture system. VMA of the head, withers and pelvis as well as dFzpeak were extracted. Multiple linear mixed models and linear regressions of kinematic variables were used to model the dFzpeak. It was hypothesised that all included VMA would have a significant influence on the dFzpeak outcome variables.The results showed a complex relationship between VMA and dFzpeak where both amplitude and timing of the VMA were of importance. On average, the contribution percentage of VMA to fore/hind dFzpeak were 66/34% for head, 76/24% for withers and 33/67% for pelvis. The linear regressions for the fore/hindlimb models achieved mean measurement root mean squared errors of 0.83%/0.82% dFzpeak. These results might help determine the clinical relevance of upper body VMA and distinguish between primary fore, hind, ipsilateral and diagonal weight-bearing lameness.
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25.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Non-banked curved tracks influence movement symmetry in two-year-old Standardbred trotters
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: Equine Veterinary Journal. - : Wiley. - 0425-1644 .- 2042-3306.
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Background: Little is known regarding how trotting through curves affects locomotion symmetry in Standardbred trotters.Objectives: To investigate differences in objectively measured Standardbred trotter vertical motion symmetry between straight and non-banked, curved sections of oval trotting tracks during exercise warm-up, using a wireless inertial measurement unit (IMU) system.Study design: Cross-sectional, observational study.Methods: Sixteen horses were included. Mixed models were used to assess associations between symmetry, track segment (straight vs curve) and stride duration.Results: Significant results for forelimb parameters were dependent on interactions between track segments and stride duration. At mean stride duration (0.611 second), during the curved track segment horses showed a lower maximum vertical position of the head after push-off of the outside forelimb (estimate -2.3 mm, P < 0.0001, 95% CI -1.7 to -2.9) and higher minimum vertical position of the head during stance of the outside forelimb (estimate -1.8 mm, P < 0.0001, 95% CI -1.2 to -2.5) compared to straight track, mimicking outside forelimb impact and push-off asymmetry during track curves. For hindlimb parameters, during the curve there was a decreased downward motion of the pelvis during outer hindlimb stance (estimate-0.7 mm, P < 0.0001, 95% CI -0.4 to -1.0), mimicking outside hindlimb impact asymmetry.Main limitations: Horses were evaluated going in one direction only on the track (clockwise).Conclusions: Systematic differences between straight and curved track segments were found but did not fully correspond to previously described findings for horses lunged in circles. Effect sizes were overall small. Data in our study were collected from horses trotting on 1000 m tracks with curve radii of 80-85 m. On non-banked tracks of this size, collecting IMU symmetry data at jogging speeds without distinguishing between straight and curved parts is unlikely to adversely affect clinical decision-making.
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26.
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27.
  • Hernlund, Elin (författare)
  • Sport surfaces in show jumping
  • 2016
  • Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • Properties of sport surfaces influence the occurrence of injuries and the performance of equine athletes. The sports governing body seeks to develop standards for safety and performance of show jumping surfaces. Limited information is available to guide this process. Objective methods are warranted in order to define surface properties that can be associated to injury and performance data. Description of the discipline-specific interaction between the horse and the ground is important in order to display the characteristics and diversity of loading patterns applied to the sport surfaces as well as to enable understanding of the mechanical challenges that lead to injuries. The aims of this thesis were to describe the hoof-ground interaction in show jumping and to study functional properties of surfaces through rider assessments and by using a standardized biomechanical method that enables comparisons between arenas. Hoof landing characteristics of elite horses in jump landing from 1.30–1.50 m competition fences on two different surfaces were evaluated from high-speed videos. Hoof landing kinematics differed among the leading/trailing fore and hind limbs. Data increased our understanding of hoof-ground interaction and related events, which is a prerequisite for developing surface testing devices. Hoof impact was also investigated using hoof-mounted accelerometers in an experimental setup with five horses in canter, jump take-off and landing. Leading/trailing fore and hind limbs, stride types and surface affected the hoof-surface impact. The vertical deceleration at impact ranked in the same order, for three surface conditions, as when the impact from a metal hoof of a biomechanical surface testing device was measured. Subjective assessments of surface properties by riders were compared to objective in-situ measurements of the same properties with a biomechanical surface tester in 25 show jumping competition and warm-up arena surfaces at top-level events. Significant associations between the subjective and objective assessments were found. The data from this thesis contribute to the description of the discipline-specific hoof-surface interaction in show jumping. The objective method used for in-situ characterisation of functional surface properties can enable further objective comparisons which in the future can be related to injury and performance data of show jumping surfaces.
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28.
  • Hernlund, Elin (författare)
  • Terrain Type Detection for Smart Equine Gait Analysis Systems Using Inertial Sensors and Machine Learning
  • 2023
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Lameness, limping due to pain, is a significant welfare issue for horses. Veterinarians typically evaluate horses on two terrain types (hard and soft, e.g., asphalt and sand) that are known to affect the observed degree of lameness based on the origin/location of the pain. In the past years, whole-body inertial measurement units (IMU)-based gait analysis systems were developed to support diagnostics and monitor locomotion changes over time. Movement direction and gait (walk, trot) are automatically labeled, resulting in smart and easy-to-use systems. However, terrain types are not detected, leading to information loss. In this work, we explored terrain classification tasks with equine IMU data and machine and deep learning. Using the data of 111 horses equipped with IMU sensors (withers, pelvis, front, and hind limbs), we compared different features-based (FT) and time-series-based (TS) classifiers (train-test ratio: 0.7-0.3). In order to reduce the computational costs of the future system, we also evaluated the performance (F1 score) of the classifiers with different sampling frequencies (10 to 200Hz) and different IMU combinations (body and limbs). Our Convolutional Neural Network models accurately classified terrain types with only one IMU placed on the front limb. Downsampling the signals led to similar results, thus enabling real-time applications.
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29.
  • Hernlund, Elin, et al. (författare)
  • Theileria equi orsakade klinisk piroplasmos hos två importhästar.
  • 2013
  • Ingår i: Svensk Veterinärtidning. - 0346-2250. ; 65, s. 11-16
  • Tidskriftsartikel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
    • Klinisk piroplasmos orsakad av Theileria equi upptäcktes hos två hästar som nyligen förts in i Sverige från Spanien. Sjukdomen är anmälningspliktig och förekommer normalt inte i Sverige eftersom de fästing - arter som fungerar som vektorer saknas här. Diagnosen komplicerades av att hästarna samtidigt var sjuka i akut hästinfluensa. Piroplasmos bör beaktas hos hästar med feber, anemi och ikterus, särskilt om de kommer från områden en - demiska för ekvin piroplasmos. Om nya fästingarter får fäste i Sverige kan infektionen komma att spridas från seropositiva hästar.
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30.
  • Kroese, Adrien, et al. (författare)
  • 3D pose estimation to detect posture transition in free-stall housed dairy cows
  • 2024
  • Ingår i: Journal of Dairy Science. - 0022-0302 .- 1525-3198.
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Free stall comfort is reflected in various indicators, including the ability for dairy cattle to display unhindered posture transition movements in the cubicles. To ensure farm animal welfare, it is instrumental for the farm management to be able to continuously monitor occurrences of abnormal motions. Advances in computer vision have enabled accurate kinematic measurements in several fields such as human, equine and bovine biomechanics. An important step upstream to measuring displacement during posture transitions is to determine that the behavior is accurately detected. In this study, we propose a framework for detecting lying to standing posture transitions from 3D pose estimation data. A multi-view computer vision system recorded posture transitions between Dec. 2021 and Apr. 2022 in a Swedish stall housing 183 individual cows. The output data consisted of the 3D coordinates of specific anatomical landmarks. Sensitivity of posture transition detection was 88.2% while precision reached 99.5%. Analyzing those transition movements, breakpoints detected the timestamp of onset of the rising motion, which was compared with that annotated by observers. Agreement between observers, measured by intra-class correlation, was 0.85 between 3 human observers and 0.81 when adding the automated detection. The intra-observer mean absolute difference in annotated timestamps ranged from 0.4s to 0.7s. The mean absolute difference between each observer and the automated detection ranged from 1.0s to 1.3s. There was a significant difference in annotated timestamp between all observer pairs but not between the observers and the automated detection, leading to the conclusion that the automated detection does not introduce a distinct bias. We conclude that the model is able to accurately detect the phenomenon of interest and that it is equatable to an observer.
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31.
  • Lawin, Felix Jaremo, et al. (författare)
  • Is Markerless More or Less? : Comparing a Smartphone Computer Vision Method for Equine Lameness Assessment to Multi-Camera Motion Capture
  • 2023
  • Ingår i: Animals. - : MDPI AG. - 2076-2615. ; 13:3
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Lameness, an alteration of the gait due to pain or dysfunction of the locomotor system, is the most common disease symptom in horses. Yet, it is difficult for veterinarians to correctly assess by visual inspection. Objective tools that can aid clinical decision making and provide early disease detection through sensitive lameness measurements are needed. In this study, we describe how an AI-powered measurement tool on a smartphone can detect lameness in horses without the need to mount equipment on the horse. We compare it to a state-of-the-art multi-camera motion capture system by simultaneous, synchronised recordings from both systems. The mean difference between the systems' output of lameness metrics was below 2.2 mm. Therefore, we conclude that the smartphone measurement tool can detect lameness at relevant levels with easy-of-use for the veterinarian. Computer vision is a subcategory of artificial intelligence focused on extraction of information from images and video. It provides a compelling new means for objective orthopaedic gait assessment in horses using accessible hardware, such as a smartphone, for markerless motion analysis. This study aimed to explore the lameness assessment capacity of a smartphone single camera (SC) markerless computer vision application by comparing measurements of the vertical motion of the head and pelvis to an optical motion capture multi-camera (MC) system using skin attached reflective markers. Twenty-five horses were recorded with a smartphone (60 Hz) and a 13 camera MC-system (200 Hz) while trotting two times back and forth on a 30 m runway. The smartphone video was processed using artificial neural networks detecting the horse's direction, action and motion of body segments. After filtering, the vertical displacement curves from the head and pelvis were synchronised between systems using cross-correlation. This rendered 655 and 404 matching stride segmented curves for the head and pelvis respectively. From the stride segmented vertical displacement signals, differences between the two minima (MinDiff) and the two maxima (MaxDiff) respectively per stride were compared between the systems. Trial mean difference between systems was 2.2 mm (range 0.0-8.7 mm) for head and 2.2 mm (range 0.0-6.5 mm) for pelvis. Within-trial standard deviations ranged between 3.1-28.1 mm for MC and between 3.6-26.2 mm for SC. The ease of use and good agreement with MC indicate that the SC application is a promising tool for detecting clinically relevant levels of asymmetry in horses, enabling frequent and convenient gait monitoring over time.
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32.
  • Leclercq, Anna, et al. (författare)
  • Evaluation of feedback methods for improved detection of hindlimb lameness in horses among riding instructors and trainers
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: Frontiers in Veterinary Science. - : Frontiers Media SA. - 2297-1769. ; 9
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Lameness, a wellknown issue in sport horses, impedes performance and impairs welfare. Early detection of lameness is essential for horses to receive needed treatment, but detection of hindlimb lameness is challenging. Riding instructors and trainers observe horses in motion in their daily work and could contribute to more efficient lameness detection. In this cross-sectional and prospective study, we evaluated the ability of riding instructors and trainers to assess hindlimb lameness. We also evaluated different feedback methods for improved lameness detection. For the cross-sectional part, n = 64 riding instructors and trainers of varying level and n = 23 high-level trainers were shown 13 videos of trotting horses, lameness degree: 0-3.5 (test 1) and tasked with classifying the horses as sound, left hindlimb lame, or right hindlimb lame. For the prospective part, the riding instructors and trainers of varying levels were randomly allocated to three different groups (a, b, c) and given 14 days of feedback-based, computer-aided training in identifying hindlimb lameness, where they assessed 13 videos (of which three were repeated from test 1) of horses trotting in a straight line. Participants in groups a-c received different feedback after each video (group a: correct answer and re-viewing of video at full and 65% speed; group b: correct answer, re-viewing of video at full and 65% speed, narrator providing explanations; group c: correct answer and re-viewing of video at full speed). After computer-aided training, the participants were again subjected to the video test (test 2). Participants also provided background information regarding level of training etcetera. Effects of participants' background on results were analyzed using analysis of variance, and effects of the different feedback methods were analyzed using generalized estimation equations. On test 1, 44% (group a), 48% (b), 46% (c), and 47% (high-level trainers) of horses were correctly classified. Group a participants significantly improved their test score, both with (p < 0.0001) and without (p = 0.0086) inclusion of repeated videos. For group c, significant improvement was only seen with inclusion of repeated videos (p = 0.041). For group b, no significant improvement was seen (p = 0.51). Although test 2 scores were low, computer-aided training may be useful for improving hindlimb lameness detection.
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33.
  • Leclercq, Anna, et al. (författare)
  • Perceived sidedness and correlation to vertical movement asymmetries in young warmblood horses
  • 2023
  • Ingår i: PLoS ONE. - 1932-6203. ; 18
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The prevalence of vertical asymmetries is high in "owner-sound" warmblood riding horses, however the origin of these asymmetries is unknown. This study investigated correlations between vertical asymmetries and motor laterality. Young warmblood riding horses (N = 65), perceived as free from lameness were evaluated on three visits, each comprising objective gait analysis (inertial measurement units system) and a rider questionnaire on perceived sidedness of the horse. A subgroup (N = 40) of horses were also subjected to a forelimb protraction preference test intended as an assessment of motor laterality. We hypothesized associations between vertical asymmetry and motor laterality as well as rider-perceived sidedness. Vertical asymmetry was quantified as trial means of the stride-by-stride difference between the vertical displacement minima and maxima of the head (HDmin, HDmax) and pelvis (PDmin, PDmax). Laterality indexes, based on counts of which limb was protracted, and binomial tests were used to draw conclusions from the preference tests. In the three visits, 60-70% of horses exhibited vertical asymmetries exceeding clinically used thresholds for & GE;1 parameter, and 22% of horses exhibited a side preference in the preference test as judged by binomial tests. Linear mixed models identified a weak but statistically significant correlation between perceived hindlimb weakness and higher PDmin values attributable to either of the hindlimbs (p = 0.023). No other statistically significant correlations to vertical asymmetry were seen for any of the questionnaire answers tested. Tests of correlation between the absolute values of laterality index and asymmetry parameters (HDmin, HDmax, PDmin, PDmax) identified a weak correlation (p = 0.049) with PDmax, but when accounting for the direction of asymmetry and motor laterality, no correlations were seen for either of the asymmetry parameters. No convincing evidence of associations between vertical asymmetries and motor laterality were seen and further studies investigating motor laterality and the origin of vertical asymmetries are needed.
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34.
  • Li, Ci, et al. (författare)
  • The Poses for Equine Research Dataset (PFERD)
  • 2024
  • Ingår i: Scientific Data. - : Springer Nature. - 2052-4463. ; 11:1
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Studies of quadruped animal motion help us to identify diseases, understand behavior and unravel the mechanics behind gaits in animals. The horse is likely the best-studied animal in this aspect, but data capture is challenging and time-consuming. Computer vision techniques improve animal motion extraction, but the development relies on reference datasets, which are scarce, not open-access and often provide data from only a few anatomical landmarks. Addressing this data gap, we introduce PFERD, a video and 3D marker motion dataset from horses using a full-body set-up of densely placed over 100 skin-attached markers and synchronized videos from ten camera angles. Five horses of diverse conformations provide data for various motions from basic poses (eg. walking, trotting) to advanced motions (eg. rearing, kicking). We further express the 3D motions with current techniques and a 3D parameterized model, the hSMAL model, establishing a baseline for 3D horse markerless motion capture. PFERD enables advanced biomechanical studies and provides a resource of ground truth data for the methodological development of markerless motion capture.
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35.
  • Lönnell, Cecilia, et al. (författare)
  • Variation in training regimens in professional showjumping yards
  • 2014
  • Ingår i: Equine Veterinary Journal. - : Wiley. - 0425-1644 .- 2042-3306. ; 46, s. 233-238
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Reasons for performing study: Training regimens of showjumping horses under field conditions are largely undocumented.ObjectivesThe aims of this study were to quantify and compare training regimens used in professional-level showjumping yards, with respect to time exercised and type of activity.Study designProspective cohort study.MethodsA prospective 6-month cohort study of showjumping horses in 4 European countries (The Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, Great Britain) was designed to analyse training and health data, in yards with several horses in training and riders competing at professional level. Riders documented the daily frequency and duration of all physical activities of the horses. Variation in training routines were compared between riders, location and time. Mixed-models analysis was used to examine factors associated with total time exercised and time spent in flatwork.ResultsIn 4 countries, the 31 participating riders trained 263 European Warmbloods. The total days at risk (e.g. days in which the horses were considered fit for exercise) was 39,262. Mean time spent in daily exercise, including ridden work, lungeing and treadmill exercise, varied between riders from 19-52 min/day at risk. There was considerable variation in activities and level of heavy work and light exercise, i.e. turnout. Total time exercised and time spent in flatwork differed with month, country and proportion of days lost to training. Low variation of activities was associated with decreased total time trained and increased time spent in flatwork.ConclusionsRiders at this elite professional level of showjumping used training regimens that vary substantially in time spent training and other physical activities and showjumping horses are challenged differently during training despite competing at the same level. Whether all training regimens prepare the horses equally for the demands of competition remains to be determined.
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36.
  • Marunova, Eva, et al. (författare)
  • Changes in Head, Withers, and Pelvis Movement Asymmetry in Lame Horses as a Function of Diagnostic Anesthesia Outcome, Surface and Direction
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: Journal of Equine Veterinary Science. - : Elsevier BV. - 0737-0806 .- 1542-7412. ; 118
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Evaluation of diagnostic anesthesia during equine lameness examination requires comparison of com-plex movement patterns and can be influenced by expectation bias. There is limited research about how changes in movement asymmetries after successful analgesia are affected by different exercise condi-tions. Movement asymmetry of head, withers and pelvis was quantified in N = 31 horses undergoing forelimb or hindlimb diagnostic anesthesia. Evaluation on a straight line and a circle was performed with subjective diagnostic anesthesia outcome and quantitative changes recorded. Mixed linear models ( P < .05) analyzed the differences in movement asymmetry before/after diagnostic anesthesia -random fac-tor: horse, fixed factors: surface (soft, hard), direction (straight, inside, outside, inside-outside average), diagnostic anesthesia outcome (negative, partially positive, positive) and two-way interactions. Forelimb diagnostic anesthesia influenced primary movement asymmetry (all head and withers parameters) and compensatory movement asymmetry (two pelvic parameters) either individually ( P <=.009) or in interac-tion with surface ( P <=.03). Hindlimb diagnostic anesthesia influenced primary movement asymmetry (all pelvic parameters) and compensatory movement asymmetry (two head and two withers parameters) ei-ther individually ( P <=.04) or in interaction with surface ( P <=.01;) or direction ( P <=.006). Direction was also significant individually for two pelvic parameters ( P <=.04). Changes in primary movement asymmetries after partially positive or positive outcomes indicated improvement in the blocked limb. Compensatory changes were mostly in agreement with the 'law of sides'. The changes were more pronounced on the hard surface for hindlimb lameness and on the soft surface for forelimb lameness. Withers asymmetry showed distinct patterns for forelimb and hindlimb lameness potentially aiding clinical decision-making.(c) 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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37.
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38.
  • Persson-Sjodin, Emma, et al. (författare)
  • Withers vertical movement symmetry is useful for locating the primary lame limb in naturally occurring lameness
  • 2024
  • Ingår i: Equine Veterinary Journal. - : WILEY. - 0425-1644 .- 2042-3306. ; 56:1, s. 76-88
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • BackgroundDuring orthopaedic assessment of lame horses, a head nod is commonly present in both primary forelimb and hindlimb lame horses. Additional motion metrics that could assist clinicians in correctly differentiating between these two scenarios would be of great clinical value. ObjectivesThe primary objective of this study was to examine whether withers movement asymmetry can be used in a clinical setting to distinguish primary forelimb lameness from compensatory head movement asymmetry due to primary hindlimb lameness. Study designRetrospective, multicentre study. MethodsMovement asymmetry of head, withers and pelvis was measured using multi-camera optical motion capture, as part of routine lameness investigations at four European equine hospitals. Vertical movement asymmetry parameters from 317 horses trotting in a straight line were compared before and after successful diagnostic analgesia of a single limb. Descriptive statistics, t-tests and linear models were used to analyse the data. ResultsIn forelimb lame horses, 80%-81% showed head and withers asymmetry both indicating lameness in the same forelimb. In hindlimb lame horses, 69%-72% showed head asymmetry ipsilateral to the lame hindlimb and withers asymmetry diagonal to the lame hindlimb, thus, head and withers asymmetry indicated lameness in different forelimbs. A large (>15 mm) compensatory head nod was seen in 28%-31% of the hindlimb lame horses. In 89%-92% of these, head and withers asymmetry indicated lameness in different forelimbs. Withers asymmetry decreased linearly with reduced head or pelvic asymmetry for both forelimb and hindlimb lame horses. Main limitationsCompensatory strategies were evaluated on group level to identify common patterns, potentially ignoring uncommon individual strategies. ConclusionsWithers vertical movement asymmetry metrics can be useful in helping to locate the primary lame limb during quantitative lameness assessment. Head and withers movement asymmetry parameters generally indicate the same forelimb in forelimb lame horses, but different forelimbs in hindlimb lame horses.
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39.
  • Persson-Sjödin, Emma, et al. (författare)
  • Effect of meloxicam treatment on movement asymmetry in riding horses in training
  • 2019
  • Ingår i: PLOS ONE. - : Public Library of Science (PLoS). - 1932-6203. ; 14:8
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Quantitative gait analysis has revealed that a large proportion of horses in training, perceived as free from lameness by their owners, show movement asymmetries of equal magnitude to horses with mild clinical lameness. Whether these movement asymmetries are related to orthopaedic pain and/or pathology has yet to be further investigated. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine whether movement asymmetries in riding horses in training are affected by anti-inflammatory treatment with meloxicam. In a crossover design, horses were treated with meloxicam or placebo for four days respectively, with a 14-16 day washout period between treatments. Objective movement analysis utilising body mounted accelerometers was performed on a hard and a soft surface before and on day four of each treatment. A trial mean was calculated for the differences between the two vertical displacement minima and maxima of head (HDmin, HDmax) and pelvis (PDmin, PDmax) per stride. Horses (n = 66) with trial mean asymmetries greater than 6 mm for HDmin or HDmax, or more than 3 mm for PDmin or PDmax, at baseline were included. The difference before and after each treatment in the measured movement asymmetry was assessed with linear mixed models. Treatment with meloxicam did not significantly affect the movement asymmetry in any of the models applied (all p>0.30). These results raise new questions: are the movement asymmetries in riding horses in training simply expressions of biological variation or are they related to pain/dysfunction that is non-responsive to meloxicam treatment?
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40.
  • Persson-Sjödin, Emma, et al. (författare)
  • Effect of Speed and Surface Type on Individual Rein and Combined Left-Right Circle Movement Asymmetry in Horses on the Lunge
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: Frontiers in Veterinary Science. - : Frontiers Media SA. - 2297-1769. ; 8
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Differences in movement asymmetry between surfaces and with increasing speed increase the complexity of incorporating gait analysis measurements from lunging into clinical decision making. This observational study sets out to quantify by means of quantitative gait analysis the influence of surface and speed on individual-rein movement asymmetry measurements and their averages across reins (average-rein measurements). Head, withers, and pelvic movement asymmetry was quantified in 27 horses, identified previously as presenting with considerable movement asymmetries on the straight, during trot in hand and on the lunge on two surfaces at two speeds. Mixed linear models (p < 0.05) with horse as the random factor and surface and speed category (and direction) as fixed factors analyzed the effects on 11 individual-rein and average-rein asymmetry measures. Limits of agreement quantified differences between individual-rein and average-rein measurements. A higher number of individual-rein asymmetry variables-particularly when the limb that contributed to movement asymmetry on the straight was on the inside of the circle-were affected by speed (nine variables, all p <= 0.047) and surface (three variables, all p <= 0.037) compared with average-rein asymmetry variables (two for speed, all p <= 0.003; two for surface, all p <= 0.046). Six variables were significantly different between straight-line and average-rein assessments (all p <= 0.031), and asymmetry values were smaller for average-rein assessments. Limits of agreement bias varied between +0.4 and +4.0 mm with standard deviations between 3.2 and 12.9 mm. Fewer average-rein variables were affected by speed highlighting the benefit of comparing left and right rein measurements. Only one asymmetry variable showed a surface difference for individual-rein and average-rein data, emphasizing the benefit of assessing surface differences on each rein individually. Variability in straight-line vs. average-rein measurements across horses and exercise conditions highlight the potential for average-rein measurements during the diagnostic process; further studies after diagnostic analgesia are needed.
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41.
  • Persson-Sjödin, Emma, et al. (författare)
  • Influence of seating styles on head and pelvic vertical movement symmetry in horses ridden at trot
  • 2018
  • Ingår i: PLoS ONE. - : Public Library of Science (PLoS). - 1932-6203. ; 13
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Detailed knowledge of how a rider's seating style and riding on a circle influences the movement symmetry of the horse's head and pelvis may aid rider and trainer in an early recognition of low grade lameness. Such knowledge is also important during both subjective and objective lameness evaluations in the ridden horse in a clinical setting. In this study, inertial sensors were used to assess how different rider seating styles may influence head and pelvic movement symmetry in horses trotting in a straight line and on the circle in both directions. A total of 26 horses were subjected to 15 different conditions at trot: three unridden conditions and 12 ridden conditions where the rider performed three different seating styles (rising trot, sitting trot and two point seat). Rising trot induced systematic changes in movement symmetry of the horses. The most prominent effect was decreased pelvic rise that occurred as the rider was actively rising up in the stirrups, thus creating a downward momentum counteracting the horses push off. This mimics a push off lameness in the hindlimb that is in stance when the rider sits down in the saddle during the rising trot. On the circle, the asymmetries induced by rising trot on the correct diagonal counteracted the circle induced asymmetries, rendering the horse more symmetrical. This finding offers an explanation to the equestrian tradition of rising on the 'correct diagonal.' In horses with small preexisting movement asymmetries, the asymmetry induced by rising trot, as well as the circular track, attenuated or reduced the horse's baseline asymmetry, depending on the sitting diagonal and direction on the circle. A push off hindlimb lameness would be expected to increase when the rider sits during the lame hindlimb stance whereas an impact hindlimb lameness would be expected to decrease. These findings suggest that the rising trot may be useful for identifying the type of lameness during subjective lameness assessment of hindlimb lameness. This theory needs to be studied further in clinically lame horses.
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42.
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43.
  • Persson-Sjödin, Emma, et al. (författare)
  • Objectively measured movement asymmetry in yearling Standardbred trotters
  • 2021
  • Ingår i: Equine Veterinary Journal. - : Wiley. - 0425-1644 .- 2042-3306. ; 53, s. 590-599
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Background Lameness evaluation of Standardbred trotters can be challenging due to discrepancies in observed movement asymmetry between in-hand and track exercise, and between different trotting speeds. There are few studies on objective measurement of movement in Standardbreds, and little knowledge regarding biological variation and clinical significance of measured movement asymmetry in this breed. Objectives To quantify the prevalence and magnitude of objectively measured movement asymmetry in young Standardbred trotters, and identify associations with trainer, sex, height, track type and in-hand measurement prior to or after track trials. Study design Cross-sectional, observational study. Methods A total of 114 Standardbred yearlings were evaluated with a wireless inertial sensor system during trot in-hand and when driven on a track. After exclusions relating to lameness or technical difficulties, 103 horses were included in the study; 77 were evaluated in-hand and on the track, 24 only in-hand and 2 only on the track. Results Front and/or hindlimb parameters were above asymmetry thresholds previously established for other breeds during in-hand trials for 94 (93%) horses and during track trials for 74 (94%) horses. Most horses showed mild asymmetry. A minority of horses (20%) switched side of the asymmetry for one or more parameters between in-hand and track trials. Mixed model analyses revealed no significant effects of trial mode (in-hand or track trial, in-hand trial pre- or post-track trial, straight or oval track), trainer or horse height. Females had a significant but small reduction in asymmetry in one front limb parameter (HDmax) compared with males (1.7 mm, 95% CI 0.18-3.28,P = .03). Main limitations High data variability, reflected in large trial standard deviations, relating mainly to a lack of horse compliance. Conclusions A high proportion of Standardbred yearlings showed movement asymmetries. There was no group-level effect between in-hand and track trials, however, considerable individual variation was observed.
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44.
  • Rashid, Maheen, et al. (författare)
  • Equine Pain Behavior Classification via Self-Supervised Disentangled Pose Representation
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: 2022 IEEE WINTER CONFERENCE ON APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER VISION (WACV 2022). - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). ; , s. 152-162
  • Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Timely detection of horse pain is important for equine welfare. Horses express pain through their facial and body behavior, but may hide signs of pain from unfamiliar human observers. In addition, collecting visual data with detailed annotation of horse behavior and pain state is both cumbersome and not scalable. Consequently, a pragmatic equine pain classification system would use video of the un-observed horse and weak labels. This paper proposes such a method for equine pain classification by using multi-view surveillance video footage of unobserved horses with induced orthopaedic pain, with temporally sparse video level pain labels. To ensure that pain is learned from horse body language alone, we first train a self-supervised generative model to disentangle horse pose from its appearance and background before using the disentangled horse pose latent representation for pain classification. To make best use of the pain labels, we develop a novel loss that formulates pain classification as a multi-instance learning problem. Our method achieves pain classification accuracy better than human expert performance with 60% accuracy. The learned latent horse pose representation is shown to be viewpoint covariant, and disentangled from horse appearance. Qualitative analysis of pain classified segments shows correspondence between the pain symptoms identified by our model, and equine pain scales used in veterinary practice.
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45.
  • Rhodin, Marie, et al. (författare)
  • Effect of different head and neck positions on kinematics of elite dressage horses ridden at walk on treadmill
  • 2018
  • Ingår i: Comparative Exercise Physiology. - 1755-2540 .- 1755-2559. ; 14, s. 69-78
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • The debate on proper head and neck positions (HNP) in horse training is lively, but little is known about the biomechanical effects of various HNPs in horses ridden at walk. The aim was to quantify the influence of different HNPs on the kinematics of horses ridden at walk. The standard competition position (HNP2) was compared to a free, unrestrained position (HNP1), more flexed positions (HNP3, HNP4), a raised extended position (HNP5) and a forward-downward extended position (HNP6). An experimental study in seven high-level dressage horses ridden at walk on a treadmill was designed. Kinetic and kinematic measurements were obtained with different HNPs. HNP2 was used as a speed-matched reference. Kinematics were measured from skin-fixed markers recorded by high-speed video cameras. The kinetics of the limbs were measured by the force-measuring instrumentation of the treadmill. In HNP1, compared to HNP2, the lumbar back and the pelvis were more horizontally positioned (more extended), and fore- and hindlimb pro- and retraction increased, with increased caudal rotation of the femur during the second half of hindlimb stance. HNP6 induced similar changes as HNP1, but caused larger increases in forelimb pro- and retraction. In HNP3, HNP4 and HNP5 the pelvis was more angled (less extended) compared to HNP2 at hindlimb midstance, and in HNP3 and HNP4 also in early hindlimb stance. All three HNPs caused increased maximum flexion of the tarsus, stifle and metatarsophalangeal joint during the swing phase. HNP3 and HNP5, but not HNP4, had a decreasing influence on fore- and hindlimb pro- and retraction, and decreased caudal rotation of the femur during the second half of hindlimb stance.The main limitation was that horses were not ridden overground and the number of horses was small. Our conclusion was that changes in head and neck position can markedly affect the horse’s movement pattern at walk.
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46.
  • Rhodin, Marie, et al. (författare)
  • Evaluating Overall Performance in High-Level Dressage Horse-Rider Combinations by Comparing Measurements from Inertial Sensors with General Impression Scores Awarded by Judges
  • 2023
  • Ingår i: Animals. - 2076-2615. ; 13
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Simple Summary Dressage is an Olympic equestrian sport in which scores are awarded primarily for the technical correctness of a horse's performance. This study focuses on a single score awarded after the completion of a performance called the general impression score that is based on the gaits of the horse, the position of the rider, the effectiveness of the rider's aids, and the harmony between the horse and rider. Twenty dressage horses and their riders performed a pattern from which walk, trot and canter, and transitions from extended to collected trots were analyzed based on data from inertial measurement units that measured three-dimensional accelerations and rotations of the horse's trunk, the rider's pelvis, and the rider's trunk. The selected movements were observed on video and scored by two or three high-ranking dressage judges. The judged scores were then compared with the data describing the movements of the horse's trunk, the rider's pelvis, and the rider's trunk. The score for a horse's gaits was most heavily influenced by stride frequency, with a slower frequency being favored. The judges' scores for posture, effectiveness of aids, and harmony with the horse were most strongly influenced by the asymmetries in a rider's trunk movements, such that higher scores were associated with fewer rider asymmetries. In the sport of dressage, one or more judges score the combined performance of a horse and rider with an emphasis on the technical correctness of the movements performed. At the end of the test, a single score is awarded for the 'general impression', which considers the overall performance of the horse and rider as a team. This study explored original measures that contributed to the general impression score in a group of 20 horse-rider combinations. Horses and riders were equipped with inertial measurement units (200 Hz) to represent the angular motion of a horse's back and the motions of a rider's pelvis and trunk. Each combination performed a standard dressage test that was recorded to video. Sections of the video were identified for straight-line movements. The videos were analyzed by two or three judges. Four components were scored separately: gaits of the horse, rider posture, effectiveness of aids, and harmony with the horse. The main contributor to the score for gaits was stride frequency (R = -0.252, p = 0.015), with a slower frequency being preferred. Higher rider component scores were associated with more symmetrical transverse-plane trunk motion, indicating that this original measure is the most useful predictor of rider performance.
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47.
  • Rhodin, Marie, et al. (författare)
  • Identification of Body Behaviors and Facial Expressions Associated with Induced Orthopedic Pain in Four Equine Pain Scales
  • 2020
  • Ingår i: Animals. - : MDPI AG. - 2076-2615. ; 10
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Simple SummaryPain scales are tools developed to improve pain assessment in horses. They are based on behaviors and/or facial expressions, and the observer allocates a score based on the character of the behavior or facial expression. Little is known about behaviors and facial expressions at rest in horses with orthopedic pain since pain is mainly assessed by lameness evaluation during movement. The aim of this study was to describe how closely equine behaviors and facial expressions are associated with movement asymmetry and to identify combinations of behavior and expressions present in horses with induced orthopedic pain. Orthopedic pain was induced in eight horses and assessed in two ways; using four existing equine pain scales at rest, and by measuring movement asymmetry during movement. The association of behavior and facial expression items in the pain scales with actual lameness was analyzed. Posture-related behavior showed the strongest association, while facial expressions varied between horses. These results show that pain scales for orthopedic pain assessment would benefit from including posture, head position, location in the box stall, focus, interactive behavior, and facial expressions. This could improve orthopedic pain detection in horses during rest with mild lameness.Equine orthopedic pain scales are targeted towards horses with moderate to severe orthopedic pain. Improved assessment of pain behavior and pain-related facial expressions at rest may refine orthopedic pain detection for mild lameness grades. Therefore, this study explored pain-related behaviors and facial expressions and sought to identify frequently occurring combinations. Orthopedic pain was induced by intra-articular LPS in eight horses, and objective movement asymmetry analyses were performed before and after induction together with pain assessments at rest. Three observers independently assessed horses in their box stalls, using four equine pain scales simultaneously. Increase in movement asymmetry after induction was used as a proxy for pain. Behaviors and facial expressions commonly co-occurred and were strongly associated with movement asymmetry. Posture-related scale items were the strongest predictors of movement asymmetry. Display of facial expressions at rest varied between horses but, when present, were strongly associated with movement asymmetry. Reliability of facial expression items was lower than reliability of behavioral items. These findings suggest that five body behaviors (posture, head position, location in the box stall, focus, and interactive behavior) should be included in a scale for live assessment of mild orthopedic pain. We also recommend inclusion of facial expressions in pain assessment.
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48.
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49.
  • Rhodin, Marie, et al. (författare)
  • Quantification of the effect of instrumentation error in objective gait assessment in the horse on hindlimb symmetry parameters
  • 2018
  • Ingår i: Equine Veterinary Journal. - : Wiley. - 0425-1644 .- 2042-3306. ; 50, s. 370-376
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • BackgroundObjective gait analysis is becoming more popular as a tool assisting veterinarians during the clinical lameness exam. At present, there is only limited information on the effect of misplacement of markers/motion-sensors.ObjectivesTo investigate and describe the effect of marker misplacement on commonly calculated pelvic symmetry parameters.Study designExperimental study.MethodsEach horse was equipped with custom-made devices consisting of several reflective markers arranged in a predefined manner with a reference marker correctly positioned regarding the anatomical landmark and several misplaced markers along the sagittal and transverse planes. Linear regression analysis was used to estimate the effect of marker misplacement.ResultsFor the tubera sacrale, each cm of left/right misplacement led to a difference in minimum position of the pelvis (PDmin) of 1.67mm (95% CI 1.54-1.8mm) (P<0.001); maximum position of the pelvis (PDmax) was affected by 0.2mm (95% CI 0.071-0.33mm) (P=0.003). With respect to cranial/caudal misplacement, each cm of misplacement resulted in a PDmin difference of +/- 0.04mm (95% CI -0.09 to 0.16mm) (P=0.56) and a PDmax difference of +/- 0.008mm (95% CI -0.13 to 0.12mm) (P=0.9). For the tubera coxae, each cm of vertical misplacement led to a difference in the displacement amplitude between left and right tubera coxae (Hip-Hike_Diff) of +/- 1.56mm (95% CI 1.35-1.77mm) (P<0.001); for the cranial/caudal misplacement, this was +/- 0.82mm (95% CI 0.66-0.97mm) (P<0.001).Main limitationsOnly three horses were used in this experiment and the study design did not permit to determine the influence of marker misplacement on the evaluation of different degrees of lameness.ConclusionsMarker misplacement significantly affects calculated symmetry parameters of the pelvis. The observed errors are overall small but significant. In cases of mildly asymmetrical horses, this error might influence the decision-making process whereas in more severe asymmetries, the influence of the error effect may become less significant.
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50.
  • Rhodin, Marie, et al. (författare)
  • Timing of Vertical Head, Withers and Pelvis Movements Relative to the Footfalls in Different Equine Gaits and Breeds
  • 2022
  • Ingår i: Animals. - : MDPI AG. - 2076-2615. ; 12
  • Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
    • Simple Summary Movement symmetry of the head and pelvis are used to measure lameness in horses in trot. Although head, pelvis and limb movements have been described, less is known about the temporal relationships between them. This information is needed to understand how the movements change with lameness. This is particularly relevant in gaited horses, such as the Icelandic horse that perform gaits such as tolt and pace, which are challenging to evaluate. This study used inertial measurement units to investigate head, withers and pelvis motion relative to limb movements in Icelandic, Warmblood and Iberian horses. Limb movements, together with vertical movements and lowest/highest positions of the head, withers and pelvis were calculated, and the relative timing of the events was compared across breeds. Additionally, data for tolt and pace were collected and evaluated in ridden Icelandic horses. For all gaits except walk and pace, the lowest/highest positions of the head/withers/pelvis were closely temporally related to midstance and hoof-off, respectively. Pelvic and withers total range of motion differed between all breeds. The Icelandic horses showed shorter stride duration and smaller movements of the upper body than the other breeds at trot, which may explain why lameness evaluation in this breed is challenging. Knowledge of vertical motion patterns of the axial body segments is a prerequisite for the development of algorithms used in automated detection of lameness. To date, the focus has been on the trot. This study investigates the temporal synchronization between vertical motion of the axial body segments with limb kinematic events in walk and trot across three popular types of sport horses (19 Warmbloods, 23 Iberians, 26 Icelandics) that are known to have different stride kinematics, and it presents novel data describing vertical motion of the axial body segments in tolting and pacing Icelandic horses. Inertial measurement unit sensors recorded limb kinematics, vertical motion of the axial body at all symmetrical gaits that the horse could perform (walk, trot, tolt, pace). Limb kinematics, vertical range of motion and lowest/highest positions of the head, withers and pelvis were calculated. For all gaits except walk and pace, lowest/highest positions of the pelvis and withers were found to be closely related temporally to midstance and start of suspension of the hind/fore quarter, respectively. There were differences in pelvic/withers range of motion between all breeds where the Icelandic horses showed the smallest motion, which may explain why lameness evaluation in this breed is challenging.
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