SwePub - sökning: WFRF:(Hult Robert 1984)

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1.	Hult, Robert, 1984, et al. (författare) Coordination of Cooperative Autonomous Vehicles: Toward safer and more efficient road transportation 2016 Ingår i: IEEE Signal Processing Magazine. - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). - 1558-0792 .- 1053-5888. ; 33:6, s. 74-84 Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract While intelligent transportation systems come in many shapes and sizes, arguably the most transformational realization will be the autonomous vehicle. As such vehicles become commercially available in the coming years, first on dedicated roads and under specific conditions, and later on all public roads at all times, a phase transition will occur. Once a sufficient number of autonomous vehicles is deployed, the opportunity for explicit coordination appears. This article treats this challenging network control problem, which lies at the intersection of control theory, signal processing, and wireless communication. We provide an overview of the state of the art, while at the same time highlighting key research directions for the coming decades.
2.	Steinmetz, Erik M, 1984, et al. (författare) Communication analysis for centralized intersection crossing coordination 2014 Ingår i: Proc. 11th International Symposium on Wireless Communications Systems. - 9781479958634 ; , s. 813-818 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract Coordination of autonomous cooperative vehicles is an important challenge for future intelligent transportation systems. In particular, coordination to cross intersections captures the inherent and connected challenges among control and communication. While intersection coordination and vehicular wireless communication have both received extensive treatment in their respective communities, few works consider their interaction. We provide a communication system analysis for the specific problem of centralized intersection crossing coordination, leading to design guidelines for both uplink (whereby vehicles send intentions to the central controller) and downlink (where the controller prescribes vehicles of safe control actions).
3.	Hult, Robert, 1984, et al. (författare) An approximate solution to the optimal coordination problem for autonomous vehicles at intersections 2015 Ingår i: American Control Conference. - 0743-1619. - 9781479917730 ; 2015, s. 763-768 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract In this paper, we address the problem of optimal and safe coordination of autonomous vehicles through a traffic intersection. We state the problem as a finite time, constrained optimal control problem, a combinatorial optimization problem that is difficult to solve in real-time. A low complexity computational scheme is proposed, based on a hierarchical decomposition of the original optimal control formulation, where a central coordination problem is solved together with a number of local optimal control problems for each vehicle. We show how the proposed decomposition allows a reduction of the complexity of the central problem, provided that approximated parametric solutions of the local problems are available beforehand. We derive conditions for the construction of the parametric approximations and demonstrate the method with a numerical example.
4.	Hult, Robert, 1984, et al. (författare) An Interior Point Algorithm for Optimal Coordination of Automated Vehicles at Intersections 2019 Tidskriftsartikel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract In this paper, we consider the optimal coordination of automated vehicles at intersections under fixed crossingorders. We state the problem as a Direct Optimal Control problem, and propose a line-search Primal-Dual Interior Point algorithm with which it can be solved. We show that the problem structure is such that most computations required to construct the search- direction and step-size can be performed in parallel on-board the vehicles. This is realized through the Schur-complement of blocks in the KKT-matrix in two steps and a merit-function with separa- ble components. We analyze the communication requirements of the algorithm, and propose a conservative approximation scheme which can reduce the data exchange. We demonstrate that in hard but realistic scenarios, reductions of almost 99% are achieved, at the expense of less than 1% sub-optimality.
5.	Hult, Robert, 1984, et al. (författare) An MIQP-based heuristic for Optimal Coordination of Vehicles at Intersections 2018 Ingår i: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control. - 2576-2370 .- 0743-1546. ; 2018-December, s. 2783-2790 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract The problem of coordinating automated vehicles at intersections can be formulated as an optimal control prob- lem which is inherently difficult to solve, due to its combinato- rial nature. In this paper, we propose a two-stage approximation algorithm based on a previously presented decomposition. The procedure (a) first solves a Mixed Integer Quadratic Program (MIQP) to compute an approximate solution to the combinatorial part of the problem, i.e. the order in which the vehicles cross the intersection; then (b), solves a Nonlinear Program (NLP) for the optimal state and control trajectories. We demonstrate the performance of the algorithm through extensive simulation, and show that it greatly outperforms the natural First-Come-First-Served heuristic.
6.	Hult, Robert, 1984, et al. (författare) Design and experimental validation of a cooperative driving control architecture for the Grand Cooperative Driving Challenge 2016 2018 Ingår i: IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems. - 1524-9050 .- 1558-0016. ; 19:4, s. 1290-1301 Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract In this paper, we present the cooperative driving sys- tem developed by the Chalmers Car team for the Grand Cooper- ative Driving Challenge 2016. The paper gives an overview of the system architecture and describes in detail the communication, signal processing and decision-making sub-systems. Experimental results demonstrate the system’s performance and operation according to the rules and requirements of the competition.
7.	Hult, Robert, 1984, et al. (författare) Energy-Optimal Coordination of Autonomous Vehicles at Intersections 2018 Ingår i: 2018 European Control Conference (ECC). - 9783952426982 ; , s. 602-607 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract The problem of coordinating automated vehicles at intersections is naturally posed within the optimal control framework, using objectives such as minimization of energy consumption. In this paper we extend previous work to include relevant nonlinearities in the vehicle models and propose a cost function that directly captures both energy consumption and travel time. The problem is a so-called Economic MPC (EMPC) problem, which entails both numerical and theoretical chal- lenges. To address these issues, we propose to use a previously presented procedure to tune a MPC with a quadratic objective to approximate the EMPC. We evaluate the performance of both linear and nonlinear approximating MPC controllers in simulation. In particular, we demonstrate that a standard linear MPC can be tuned to so that the losses with respect to the EMPC is below 1%.
8.	Hult, Robert, 1984, et al. (författare) Experimental validation of a semi-distributed sequential quadratic programming method for optimal coordination of automated vehicles at intersections 2020 Ingår i: Optimal Control Applications and Methods. - : Wiley. - 1099-1514 .- 0143-2087. ; 41:4, s. 1068-1096 Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract In this article, we study the optimal coordination of automated vehicles at intersections. The problem can be stated as an optimal control problem (OCP), which can be decomposed as a bi-level scheme composed by one nonlinear program (NLP) which schedules the access to the intersection and one OCP per vehicle which computes the appropriate vehicle commands. We discuss a practical implementation of the bi-level controller where the NLP is solved with a tailored semi-distributed sequential quadratic programming (SQP) algorithm that enables distribution of most computation to the vehicles. Results from an extensive experimental campaign are presented, where the bi-level controller and the semi-distributed SQP are implemented on a test setup consisting of three automated vehicles. In particular, we show that the vehicle-level controller can enforce the scheduled intersection access beyond the accuracy admitted by the sensor system, and that the bi-level controller can handle large perturbations and large communication delays, which makes the scheme applicable in practical scenarios. Finally, the use of wireless communication introduces delays in the outer control loop. To allow faster feedback, we introduce a real-time iteration (RTI) like variation of the bi-level controller. Experimental and simulated results indicate that the RTI-like variation offers comparable performance using less computation and communication.
9.	Hult, Robert, 1984, et al. (författare) Optimal Coordination of Automated Vehicles at Intersections: Theory and Experiments 2019 Ingår i: IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology. - 1063-6536 .- 1558-0865. ; 27:6, s. 2510-2525 Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract With the introduction of Cooperative Automated Vehicles, traffic lights can be replaced by coordination algorithms. In this paper, we present a bi-level, model predictive controller for coordination of automated vehicles at intersection. The bi- level controller consists of a coordination level, where intersection occupancy timeslots are allocated, and vehicle-level controllers, where the control commands for the vehicles are computed. We establish persistent feasibility and stability of the bi-level controller under some mild assumptions, and derive conditions under which closed-loop collision avoidance can be ensured with bounded position uncertainty. We thereafter detail an implemen- tation of the coordination controller on a three-vehicle test bed, where the intersection-level optimization problem is solved using a distributed Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP) method. We present and discuss results from an extensive experimental campaign where the proposed controller was validated. The experimental results indicate the practical applicability of the proposed controller, and validates that safety can be ensured for large positioning uncertainties.
10.	Hult, Robert, 1984, et al. (författare) Optimal Coordination of Automated Vehicles at Intersections with Turns 2019 Ingår i: 2019 18th European Control Conference, ECC 2019. - 9783907144008 ; , s. 225-230 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract In this paper we address the problem of co- ordinating automated vehicles at intersections, with a spe- cial focus on turning maneuvers. The inclusion of rear-end collision avoidance constraints into the problem is decided during turning maneuvers by a smooth function of the vehicle state, rather than integer variables. Moreover, curvature-based acceleration constraints are introduced, which limit the velocity of the vehicle during the turn, and a term in the objective function accounts for passenger comfort. We discuss how the coordination problem is formulated as a nonlinear program and show though simulations that for practical problem instances the proposed approximation is either exact or introduces very little conservativeness.
11.	Hult, Robert, 1984, et al. (författare) Optimisation-based coordination of connected, automated vehicles at intersections 2020 Ingår i: Vehicle System Dynamics. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1744-5159 .- 0042-3114. ; 58:5, s. 726-747 Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract In this paper, we analyse the performance of a model predictive controller for coordination of connected, automated vehicles at intersections. The problem has combinatorial complexity, and we propose to solve it approximately by using a two stage procedure where (1) the vehicle crossing order in which the vehicles cross the intersection is found by solving a mixed integer quadratic program and (2) the control commands are subsequently found by solving a nonlinear program. We show that the controller is persistently safe and compare its performance against traffic lights and two simpler optimisation-based coordination schemes. The results show that our approach outperforms the considered alternatives in terms of both energy consumption and travel-time delay, especially for medium to high traffic loads.
12.	Hult, Robert, 1984 (författare) Optimization-based coordination strategies for connected and autonomous vehicles 2019 Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract Automated vehicles (AV) are expected to reach the consumer market within the next decade. Once AVs become ubiquitous, they could resolve difficult traffic situations through communication-based cooperation. Intersections are of particular interest in this context, as they form bottlenecks in the traffic system and are responsible for a large share of all accidents. Rather than relying on traffic lights, road signs and rules, AVs could employ cooperative strategies to decide how an intersection should be crossed safely and efficiently. However, designing efficient coordination strategies for AVs at intersections is challenging, as computationally hard problems are involved, with a safety-critical dependence on both wireless communication and imprecise sensing. This thesis treats control algorithms for cooperative coordination of CAVs at intersections. The proposed algorithms are based on Optimal Control (OC) formulations of the coordination problem and aim at finding the optimal control commands for each vehicle through a two-stage approximation procedure. In the first stage, the order in which the vehicles cross the intersection is determined using a heuristic based on Mixed-Integer Quadratic Programming (MIQP). In the second stage, the optimal control commands for each vehicle are found under a fixed crossing order. Two algorithms are presented that solves the problem of the second stage in a communication efficient, distributed fashion. In the first algorithm, the problem is decomposed into one master-problem and one sub-problem for each vehicle. The master-problem is solved using a Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP) algorithm, where most computations are performed in parallel on-board the vehicles. In the second algorithm, the problem is solved using a Primal-Dual Interior Point (PDIP) method. The computations involved are separable so that the largest part can be performed in parallel on-board the vehicles, a lesser part in parallel on lead-vehicles for each lane, and a small part at a central network node. The two-stage approximation procedure is used in a Model Predictive Controller (MPC), and conditions for persistent feasibility and stability are derived. Performance of the MPC-based closed-loop controller is assessed in simulation, and compared to traffic-lights and alternative coordination algorithms. The results demonstrate that the two-stage approach outperforms existing alternatives, with almost zero average travel-time delay and a marginal increase in energy consumption compared to cruising at constant speed. An MPC controller based on the SQP algorithm is verified experimentally at a test-track with three real vehicles. The results demonstrate that efficient coordination is practically realizable through communication-based optimization and MPC. In particular, the experiments show that the MPC algorithm performs well under adverse conditions with significant sensor noise, communication impairments and external perturbations.
13.	Hult, Robert, 1984, et al. (författare) Primal decomposition of the optimal coordination of vehicles at traffic intersections 2016 Ingår i: 2016 IEEE 55th Conference on Decision and Control, CDC 2016. - 9781509018376 ; 2016:55, s. Art no 7798649, Pages 2567-2573 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract In this paper we address the problem of coordinating automated vehicles at intersections, which we state as a constrained finite horizon optimal control problem. We present and study the properties of a primal decomposition of the optimal control problem. More specifically, the decomposition consists of an upper problem that allocates occupancy time-slots in the intersection, and lower-level problems delivering control policies for each vehicle. We investigate the continuity class of the upper problem, and show that it can be efficiently tackled using a standard sequential quadratic programming and that most computations can be distributed and performed by the participating vehicles. The paper is concluded with an illustrative numerical example.
14.	Jiang, Yuning, et al. (författare) Distributed Algorithm for Optimal Vehicle Coordination at Traffic Intersections 2017 Ingår i: IFAC-PapersOnLine. - : Elsevier BV. - 2405-8963. ; 50:1, s. 11577-11582 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract Automated vehicle coordination can be used to control vehicles across traffic intersections safely and efficiently. This paper proposes a novel parallelizable algorithm, which solves the coordination problem at traffic intersections under a given precedence order by using a tailored variant of the augmented Lagrangian based alternating direction inexact Newton method (ALADIN). Here, each vehicle solves its own optimal control problem and exchanges information about arrivial and departure times at the intersection with its neighbors such that collisions are avoided. We illustrate the performance of ALADIN by analyzing two scenarios, one during rush hour and one at low-traffic conditions.
15.	Kojchev, Stefan, 1992, et al. (författare) A Two-Stage MIQP-Based Optimization Approach for Coordinating Automated Electric Vehicles in Confined Sites 2024 Ingår i: IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems. - 1524-9050 .- 1558-0016. ; 25:2, s. 2061-2075 Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract In this paper, we present a high-level optimization-based control strategy for the coordination of electric automated vehicles (AVs) in confined sites. A centralized controller optimizes the state and input trajectories of all vehicles in the site such that collisions are avoided in cross-intersections, narrow roads, merge crossings, and charging stations, while also considering the charging process. Specifically, the controller consists of two optimization-based components. The first component is tasked with solving the combinatorial part of the problem, which corresponds to the order in which the vehicles pass the crossings, by solving a Mixed Integer Quadratic Problem (MIQP). The found combinatorial solution is then utilized for calculating the optimal state and input trajectories that are obtained by solving a Nonlinear Program (NLP). The control algorithm is compared with respect to alternative optimization-based approaches in simulation scenarios. For the presented scenario, our method achieves improved energy efficiency by up to 7.6% while slightly improving the average mission end time, and furthermore, it is capable of avoiding deadlocks.
16.	Kojchev, Stefan, 1992, et al. (författare) An iterative algorithm for volume maximization of N-step backward reachable sets for constrained linear time-varying systems 2021 Ingår i: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control. - 2576-2370 .- 0743-1546. ; 2021-December, s. 5027-5032 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract In this paper, we consider the computation of robust N-step backward reachable sets for state-and input con-strained linear time-varying systems with additive uncertainty. We propose a method to compute a linear, time-varying control law that maximizes the volume of the robust N-step reachable set for the closed-loop system. The proposed method is an extension of recent developments and involves the recursive solution of N semi-definite programs (SDP). We demonstrate the performance of the proposed method on the lateral control problem for emergency maneuvers of autonomous vehicles and compare it to results obtained when backward reachability is applied to the same system and a naively designed controller.
17.	Kojchev, Stefan, 1992, et al. (författare) Energy Efficient Optimization-Based Coordination of Electric Automated Vehicles in Confined Areas 2023 Ingår i: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control. - 2576-2370 .- 0743-1546. ; , s. 3433-3440 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract In this paper, we present an optimization-based control strategy for coordinating multiple electric automated vehicles (AVs) in confined sites. The approach focuses on obtaining and keeping energy-efficient driving profiles for the AVs while avoiding collisions in cross-intersections, narrow roads, and merge crossings. Specifically, the approach is composed of two optimization-based components. The first component obtains the energy-efficient profiles for each individual AV by solving a Nonlinear Program (NLP) for the vehicle's complete mission route. The conflict resolution, which is performed by the second component, is accomplished by solving a time-scheduling Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) problem that exploits the application characteristics. We demonstrate the performance of the algorithm through a non-trivial comparative simulation example with an alternative optimization-based heuristic.
18.	Kojchev, Stefan, 1992, et al. (författare) Optimization based coordination of autonomous vehicles in confined areas 2022 Ingår i: IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Proceedings, ITSC. ; 2022-October, s. 1957-1963 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract Confined areas present an opportunity for early deployment of autonomous vehicles (AV) due to the absence of non-controlled traffic participants. In this paper, we present an approach for coordination of multiple AVs in confined sites. The method computes speed-profiles for the AVs such that collisions are avoided in cross-intersection and merge crossings. Specifically, this is done through the solution of an optimal control problem where the motion of all vehicles is optimized jointly. The order in which the vehicles pass the crossings is determined through the solution of a Mixed Integer Quadratic Program (MIQP). Through simulation results, we demonstrate the capability of the algorithm in terms of performance and satisfaction of collision avoidance constraints.
19.	Kojchev, Stefan, 1992, et al. (författare) Quadratic approximation based heuristic for optimization-based coordination of automated vehicles in confined areas 2022 Ingår i: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control. - 2576-2370 .- 0743-1546. ; 2022-December, s. 6156-6162 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract We investigate the problem of coordinating multiple automated vehicles (AVs) in confined areas. This problem can be formulated as an optimal control problem (OCP) where the motion of the AVs is optimized such that collisions are avoided in cross-intersections, merge crossings, and narrow roads. The problem is combinatorial and solving it to optimality is prohibitively difficult for all but trivial instances. For this reason, we propose a heuristic method to obtain approximate solutions. The heuristic comprises two stages: In the first stage, a Mixed Integer Quadratic Program (MIQP), similar in construction to the Quadratic Programming (QP) sub-problems in Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP), is solved for the combinatorial part of the solution. In the second stage, the combinatorial part of the solution is held fixed, and the optimal state and control trajectories for the vehicles are obtained by solving a Nonlinear Program (NLP). The performance of the algorithm is demonstrated by a simulation of a non-trivial problem instance.
20.	Rodrigues de Campos, Gabriel, 1986, et al. (författare) Cooperative receding horizon conflict resolution at traffic intersections 2014 Ingår i: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control. - 0743-1546 .- 2576-2370. ; 2015-February, s. 2932-2937 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract In this article, we consider the problem of coordinating a number of vehicles crossing a traffic intersection. The proposed solution is based on a receding horizon formulation with a pre-defined decision order. In this approach, local problems are formulated for each vehicle, which are divided into a finite-time optimal control problem, where collision avoidance is enforced as terminal constraints, and an infinite horizon control problem, which can be solved offline. Feasibility conditions for a given decision sequence are also derived and simulation results are presented.
21.	Rodrigues de Campos, Gabriel, 1986, et al. (författare) Traffic Coordination at Road Intersections: Autonomous Decision-Making Algorithms Using Model-Based Heuristics 2017 Ingår i: IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine. - : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). - 1939-1390 .- 1941-1197. ; 9:1, s. 8-21 Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract This article focuses on the traffic coordination problem at traffic intersections. We present a decentralized coordination approach, combining optimal control with model-based heuristics. We show how model-based heuristics can lead to low-complexity solutions that are suit-able for a fast online implementation, and analyze its properties in terms of efficiency, feasibility and optimality. Finally, simulation results for dif-ferent scenarios are also presented.
22.	Shi, Jiahe, et al. (författare) Distributed Control Algorithm for Vehicle Coordination at Traffic Intersections 2018 Ingår i: 2018 European Control Conference, ECC 2018. - 9783952426982 ; , s. 1161-1171 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract This paper proposes a distributed closed-loop control algorithm for optimal coordination of autonomous vehicles at traffic intersections. The main contribution of the paper is a distributed plug-and-play closed-loop optimal control scheme with rear-end collision avoidance constraints enforced on each lane, which maintains recursive feasibility under the assumption that communication between neighboring vehicles is possible. The method is closely related to model predictive control, but at each sampling time new vehicles are allowed to enter the modeled region around the intersection while other vehicles are leaving. In contrast to human drivers, autonomous vehicles can collaboratively form the deceleration strategy before the intersection. Our numerical results indicate that, under certain assumptions, it is optimal for vehicles not allowed to directly pass the intersection to slow down much before the intersection area and then accelerate at the right time so that they can travel through the intersection faster.
23.	Steinmetz, Erik, et al. (författare) Collision-Aware Communication for Intersection Management of Automated Vehicles 2018 Ingår i: IEEE Access. - 2169-3536. ; 6, s. 77359-77371 Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract Intersection management of automated vehicles relies on wireless communication, whereby communication resources should be allocated to vehicles while maintaining safety. We present a collision-aware resource allocation (CARA) strategy for coordination of automated and connected vehicles by a centralized intersection manager. The proposed strategy is based on a self-triggered approach and proactively reduces the risk of channel congestion by only assigning communication resources to vehicles that are in critical configurations, i.e., when there is a risk for a future collision. Compared with collision-agnostic communication strategies, typically considered for automated intersection management, the CARA strategy aims to bridge the gap between control, sensing, and communication. It is shown to significantly reduce the required amount of communication (albeit with a slight increase in the control cost), without compromising safety. Furthermore, control cost can be reduced by allowing more frequent communication, which we demonstrate through a trade-off analysis between control performance and communication load. Hence, CARA can operate in communication-limited scenarios, but also be modified for scenarios where the control cost is of primary interest.
24.	Vaio, Marco Di, et al. (författare) Design and Experimental Validation of a Distributed Interaction Protocol for Connected Autonomous Vehicles at a Road Intersection 2019 Ingår i: IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology. - 0018-9545 .- 1939-9359. ; 68:10, s. 9451-9465 Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract This paper presents a fully distributed interaction protocol for connected self-driving cars negotiating the access a traffic junction. The vehicles coordination has been reformulated as an equivalent virtual platoon control problem. The desired vehicles spacing within the platoon is chosen so to avoid the side and rear-end collisions and is controlled by a cooperative non-linear control algorithm, based on potential functions. The asymptotic stability of the closed-loop system has been analytically proved by leveraging the LaSalle's Invariance Principle. The analysis of the convergence rate has resulted in an effective tuning tool ensuring that the desired formation is achieved before vehicles reach the intersection. Most notably, results from an in-vehicle experimental validation are presented. The experiments were carried out on three self-driving cars connected through a V2V communication infrastructure based on the IEEE 802.11p protocol. The experimental results confirm the theoretical analysis and reveal the effectiveness of the control approach for autonomously and safely negotiating a generic traffic junction.
25.	Zanon, Mario, 1985, et al. (författare) Experimental Validation of Distributed Optimal Vehicle Coordination 2018 Ingår i: 2018 European Control Conference (ECC). - 9783952426982 ; , s. 1511-1516 Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract In this paper we solve the problem of coordinating autonomous vehicles approaching an intersection in experi- ments. We cast the problem in the distributed optimisation framework and use the algorithm proposed in [10], [14] to solve it in real time. We compare two variants of the algorithm in simulations and test our algorithm in experiments using real cars on a test track. The experimental results demonstrate the applicability and real-time feasibility of the algorithm and show that the underlying assumptions are justified.

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