| 1. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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Experiences of Gamified and Automated Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Spider Phobia : Qualitative Study
- 2020
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Ingår i: JMIR Serious Games. - Toronto, ON, Canada : JMIR Publications Inc.. - 2291-9279. ; 8:2
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background: Virtual reality exposure therapy is an efficacious treatment of anxiety disorders, and recent research suggests that such treatments can be automated, relying on gamification elements instead of a real-life therapist directing treatment. Such automated, gamified treatments could be disseminated without restrictions, helping to close the treatment gap for anxiety disorders. Despite initial findings suggesting high efficacy, very is little is known about how users experience this type of intervention.Objective: The aim of this study was to examine user experiences of automated, gamified virtual reality exposure therapy using in-depth qualitative methods.Methods: Seven participants were recruited from a parallel clinical trial comparing automated, gamified virtual reality exposure therapy for spider phobia against an in vivo exposure equivalent. Participants received the same virtual reality treatment as in the trial and completed a semistructured interview afterward. The transcribed material was analyzed using thematic analysis.Results: Many of the uncovered themes pertained directly or indirectly to a sense of presence in the virtual environment, both positive and negative. The automated format was perceived as natural and the gamification elements appear to have been successful in framing the experience not as psychotherapy devoid of a therapist but rather as a serious game with a psychotherapeutic goal.Conclusions: Automated, gamified virtual reality exposure therapy appears to be an appealing treatment modality and to work by the intended mechanisms. Findings from the current study may guide the next generation of interventions and inform dissemination efforts and future qualitative research into user experiences.
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| 2. |
- Vlaescu, George, et al.
(författare)
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Features and functionality of the Iterapi platform for internet-based psychological treatment
- 2016
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Ingår i: Internet Interventions. - : Elsevier BV. - 2214-7829. ; 6, s. 107-114
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The purpose of this article is to describe an internet-based platform for improving symptoms and quality of life for people with psychological and behavioural health problems such as depression, anxiety, phobia, psychological trauma, hearing loss and tinnitus. The online platform, called Iterapi, was developed at the Department of Behavioural Sciences and Learning at Linköping University, Sweden and has been running for nearly two decades and used in many randomized controlled trials and outpatient treatments.The intention of this article is to share our experience with developing such a treatment solution and the process flow and elements of running internet-based psychological interventions. This will likely be of use to developers building similar services, therapists considering integrating such approaches in their practices and institutions, as well as researchers curious about the functions included on the platform and methodology used for running studies.We describe the security aspects of the platform, central concepts underlying its development, how the platform can be used in a study or treatment and the main features and functions the platform offers. We comment on practical considerations regarding blending of methods within the platform, such as self-help treatments with asynchronous communication and real-time text chat and video conversations. We also point out the advantages of using Internet-assisted treatments, the challenges that we have faced and future planned upgrades.Due to continuous development of the platform, its user-friendliness, accessibility across devices and numerous features, many research colleagues from Sweden as well as other countries such as Germany, United Kingdom, Romania and Israel have chosen to implement their own studies on the platform.
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| 3. |
- Carlbring, Per, et al.
(författare)
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In session virtual reality use for public speaking anxiety : A randomized controlled trial
- 2017
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Fear of public speaking is common and for some individuals this interferes significantly with the person's life and causes marked distress. We wanted to test a newly developed virtual reality assisted 1-session in-person treatment (3 hours). The therapist guided session consisted of a series of behavioral experiments based on the expectancy violation principle. This was followed by a 4-week booster intervention delivered via the internet. Following a diagnostic interview a total of 50 individuals with a score of ≥ 60 on the Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety questionnaire were randomized to a treatment or a control condition. A total of 78% also met criteria for social anxiety disorder. Considering only having had one treatment session in-person the preliminary results were promising with a between group effect size on the primary outcome (Public Speaking Anxiety Scale) of Cohen’s d=1.32 before commencing the internet-based booster program. Four weeks later the between-group effect size was d=1.90. However, on the secondary outcome measures the effect sizes were more often moderate than large. At the time of the conference 6-month follow-up data will be available in addition to the already collected post-assessment data (analyzed according to the intention-to-treat principle).
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| 4. |
- Carlbring, Per, et al.
(författare)
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ITSY : A Gamified One-Session Virtual Reality App With 12-Month Follow-Up Data
- 2017
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Ingår i: Program Book. ; , s. 396-396
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Introduction: This is the first large randomized-controlled trial to evaluate whether commercially available VR hardware and software can be used for exposure therapy. The aim of this study was to compare gold-standard One Session Therapy (OST) for reduction of spider phobia symptoms and avoidance behavior using in vivo spiders and a human therapist, to a newly developed single-session gamified Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) application with modern, consumer-available VR hardware, virtual spiders, and a virtual therapist.Method: Subjects (N=100) with spider phobia, diagnosed, and meeting inclusion criteria were recruited from the general population and randomized to 2 treatment arms. In 1-week intervals, pre-measurement, 3-hr treatment and post-measurement were completed with an in-vivo behavioral approach test (BAT) serving as the primary outcome measure for both groups. This study was powered to detect a non-inferiority margin of a 2-point between-group difference on the BAT, with a standard deviation of 4 (at 80% power).Results: 98 patients commenced treatment and 97 patients completed post-measurement. Per protocol analysis indicated VR was not non-inferior to OST. Repeated-measures ANOVA identified a significant main effect of time (p < .001) and time x group effect (p < .05). Both OST and VR participants experienced large BAT within-group effect sizes (d=2.28 and d=1.45, respectively). By the time of the conference there will be 12-month follow-up data including prediction analysis and the effect of treatment credibility and working alliance (with the virtual therapist).Conclusion: OST is the superior treatment option for spider phobia. VRET is an effective alternative if OST cannot be provided, as pure self-help, as the initial intervention in a stepped-care model, or as a possible post-OST booster.
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| 5. |
- Carlbring, Per, et al.
(författare)
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The efficacy of internet-based virtual reality exposure therapy for public speaking anxiety : A randomized controlled trial
- 2017
-
Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Fear of public speaking is common and for some individuals this interferes significantly with the person's life and causes marked distress. We wanted to test a newly developed virtual reality assisted 1-session in-person treatment (3 hours). The therapist guided session consisted of a series of behavioral experiments based on the expectancy violation principle. This was followed by a 4-week booster intervention delivered via the internet. Following a diagnostic interview a total of 50 individuals with a score of ≥ 60 on the Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety questionnaire were randomized to a treatment or a control condition. A total of 78% also met criteria for social anxiety disorder. Considering only having had one treatment session in-person the preliminary results were promising with a between group effect size on the primary outcome (Public Speaking Anxiety Scale) of Cohen’s d=1.32 before commencing the internet-based booster program. Four weeks later the between-group effect size was d=1.90. However, on the secondary outcome measures the effect sizes were more often moderate than large. At the time of the conference 6-month follow-up data will be available in addition to the already collected post-assessment data (analyzed according to the intention-to-treat principle).
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| 6. |
- Carlbring, Per, et al.
(författare)
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Therapist and Internet Administered One-Session Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Public Speaking Anxiety : A Randomized Controlled Trial
- 2018
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Fear of public speaking is common and for some individuals this interferes significantly with the person's life and causes marked distress. We wanted to test a newly developed virtual reality assisted 1-session in-person treatment (3 hours). The therapist guided session consisted of a series of behavioral experiments based on the expectancy violation principle. This was followed by a 4-week booster intervention delivered via the internet. Following a diagnostic interview a total of 50 individuals with a score of ≥ 60 on the Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety questionnaire were randomized to a treatment or a control condition. A total of 78% also met criteria for social anxiety disorder. Considering only having had one treatment session in-person the preliminary results were promising with a between group effect size on the primary outcome (Public Speaking Anxiety Scale) of Cohen’s d=1.32 before commencing the internet-based booster program. Four weeks later the between-group effect size was d=1.90. However, on the secondary outcome measures the effect sizes were more often moderate than large. At the time of the conference 6-month follow-up data will be available in addition to the already collected post-assessment data (analyzed according to the intention-to-treat principle).
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| 7. |
- Carlbring, Per, et al.
(författare)
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Treat your social anxiety disorder with this gamified smartphone app
- 2016
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Aim: Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a common debilitating mental illness with large negative effects on quality of life and economic productivity. Modern psychotherapy treatments utilizing cognitive–behavioral theory are increasingly delivered over the Internet and more recently using smartphone applications. The Challenger App written natively for the Apple iPhone was developed at the Stockholm University Department of Psychology for the treatment of SAD and uses a number of advanced features not previously seen in past mental health applications; these include real-time location awareness, notifications, anonymous social interaction between users, a high-degree of personalization and use of gamification techniques.Method: A total of 209 participants with a primary diagnosis of SAD were randomized to one of three groups: 1) Self-help book, 2) Self-help book + the Challenger app, or 3) waitlist. The treatment period lasted 6 weeks. Primary outcome measure was Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale self- report (LSAS-SR). Also included where the Quality of Life Inventory, Patient Health Questionnaire, and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Outcome was analyzed according to the intention to treat principle.Results: Both treatment groups were superior to the waitlist. On the main outcome measure (LSAS-SR) the effect size for the waitlist was Cohens d=0.14. The group that received the self-help book with the addition of the Challenger app was significantly superior (d=1.0) to just reading the self- help book (d=0.61). Participants requited by way of Newspaper advertisement were more likely to reach high end-state functioning (OR=4.1) and the same was true for participants without prior psychological treatment history as compared with having a previous experience (OR=4.4).Conclusion: Adding the smartphone app is a cost effective way of improving the outcome when treating SAD with a self-help book.
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| 8. |
- Fagernäs, Simon, et al.
(författare)
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Moderating effects of presence and adherence in internetbased CBT with virtual reality exposure therapy for public speaking anxiety
- 2017
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Introduction: Previous research has revealed that Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) is an effective method for reducing symptoms of public speaking anxiety (PSA). Research about presence in the virtual environment indicates a moderating effect on physiological arousal, but more ambiguous effect on treatment effects where some research indicates a small effect while other indicate no effect. Furthermore, previous research has found adherence to home work assignments to moderate treatment outcome. In this treatment study which aimed for treating public speaking anxiety with VRET and a internetbased CBT-program, we investigated whether presence in the virtual environment and adherence to home work moderated treatment effects.Methods: N=25 adult participants from the general public with clinically significant PSA were recruited to a wait-list to another study. After five weeks on waitlist, they started the treatment with a self-guided in virtuo exposure session followed by a four week online maintenance promoting in-vivo exposure. Participants got a simple VR headset by post. The three-hour exposure session included psychoeducation in text, and the participants conducted speech exercises, framed as behavioral experiments targeting idiosyncratic catastrophic beliefs, in front of virtual audiences, and listening to audio recording afterwards. Primary outcome measure was self-reported PSA. To measure moderating effects of presence on the primary outcome measure a self-reported validated scale with subscales for presence (iGroup Presence Questionnaire, IPQ) were used, and for adherence a score were manually calculated based on the number of completed home-work assignments in both a linear model and a binary model dividing participants in two groups: one with at least one completed home work assignment and one with no completed home work assignment. The analysis on presence included both the effects of the VRET-session alone and in combination with the internetbased CBT-program. Data were analyzed using mixed effects modeling.Results: No significant results were found in moderating effects of presence with its subscales on the primary outcome measure for either the VRET-session (p = .375-.616) nor in combination with the internetbased CBT-program (p = .454 - .877). Moderating effects of adherence on primary outcome measure neither revealed no significant results in the linear model (p = .368) nor the binary model (p = .113).Conclusions: The findings of this study indicate, in line with some previous research, that presence in the virtual environment has no significant moderating effect on treatment outcome. Furthermore, in contrast to previous research, this study found no significant moderating effect on adherence to home work assignments on primary treatment outcome. Internal- and external validity and other potential explanations are discussed in detail in the poster.
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| 9. |
- Fagernäs, Simon, et al.
(författare)
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What do users think about Virtual Reality relaxation applications? A mixed methods study of online user reviews using natural language processing
- 2021
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Ingår i: Internet Interventions. - : Elsevier BV. - 2214-7829. ; 24
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The advent of affordable Virtual Reality (VR) technology has spurred consumer and commercial interest in VR relaxation applications, which has quickly grown into a popular non-gaming genre on digital marketplaces. While laboratory studies have demonstrated efficacy of VR relaxation for mental health purposes, little is known about how users experience this type of intervention and no study has examined the reception of consumer versions among regular users in everyday life. Studying published user reviews offers a unique window into naturalistic user experiences that complements traditional qualitative methods by circumventing the sampling bias of interview studies, and allowing analyses on full samples, unconstrained by coding resources. Using an innovative, semi-automated Natural Language Processing technique, the current study analyzed 1379 published reviews (including star ratings) of 30 different VR relaxation applications available for the Oculus Go and Gear VR. The uncovered topic structure and sentiment analysis thereof suggests that users have an overall positive view of VR relaxation applications, describing them as successful in inducing immersion and relaxation, and having appreciated gamification elements. However, perceived quality varied substantially between applications that explained more variance in star ratings than specific features. Critical issues raised were both technical (e.g. “overheating”) in nature and related to specific design elements and use. Implications for the design of consumer VR applications and future research are discussed.
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| 10. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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Attitudes Toward and Familiarity With Virtual Reality Therapy Among Practicing Cognitive Behavior Therapists : A Cross-Sectional Survey Study in the Era of Consumer VR Platforms
- 2019
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Ingår i: Frontiers in Psychology. - : Frontiers Media S.A.. - 1664-1078. ; 10
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) is an efficacious treatment for fear and anxiety and has the potential to solve both logistic issues for therapists and be used for scalable self-help interventions. However, VRET has yet to see large-scale implementation in clinical settings or as a consumer product, and past research suggests that while therapists may acknowledge the many advantages of VRET, they view the technology as technically inaccessible and expensive. We reasoned that after the 2016 release of several consumer virtual reality (VR) platforms and associated public acquaintance with VR, therapists' concerns about VRET may have evolved. The present study surveyed attitudes toward and familiarity with VR and VRET among practicing cognitive behavior therapists (n = 185) attending a conference. Results showed that therapists had an overall positive attitude toward VRET (pros rated higher than cons) and viewed VR as applicable to conditions other than anxiety. Unlike in earlier research, high financial costs and technical difficulties were no longer top-rated negative aspects. Average negative attitude was a larger negative predictor of self-rated likelihood of future use than positive attitude was a positive predictor and partially mediated the positive association between VRET knowledge and likelihood of future use, suggesting that promotional efforts should focus on addressing concerns. We conclude that therapist's attitudes toward VRET appear to have evolved in recent years, and no longer appear to constitute a major barrier to implementing the next generation of VR technology in regular clinical practice.
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| 11. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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Attitudes towards and familiarity with Virtual Reality therapy among practicing cognitive behavior therapists : A first survey study in the era of consumer VR platforms
- 2018
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Objectives: To survey attitudes towards, knowledge of and familiarity with Virtual Reality (VR) technology and VR exposure therapy among practicing cognitive behavior therapists, after the recent release of consumer VR platforms, with the aim of identifying potential human barriers to implementing this technology and therapeutic method in regular care. Participants: 185 practicing cognitive behavior therapists attending a conference.Measures: Self-rated likelihood of future use of VR in a clinical setting, applicability of VR to treating specific mental disorders, as well as ratings of different positive and negative aspects of VR exposure therapy – all assessed using a standardized survey.Results: Very few respondents reported having used VR clinically. Therapists had an overall positive attitude toward VRET (pros rated higher than cons) and viewed VR as applicable to conditions other than anxiety. Unlike in earlier research, a high financial cost was no longer a top-rated negative aspects. Average negative attitude was a larger negative predictor of self-rated likelihood of future use than positive attitude was a positive predictor.Conclusions: We conclude that therapist’s attitudes towards VRET appear to have evolved in recent years, coinciding with the release of consumer VR platforms, and no longer appear to constitute a major barrier to implementing the next generation of VR technology in regular clinical practice.
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| 12. |
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| 13. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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Creating state of the art, next-generation Virtual Reality exposure therapies for anxiety disorders using consumer hardware platforms : Design considerations and future directions
- 2017
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Ingår i: Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1650-6073 .- 1651-2316. ; 46:5, s. 404-420
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- Decades of research and more than 20 randomized controlled trials show that Virtual Reality exposure therapy (VRET) is effective in reducing fear and anxiety. Unfortunately, few providers or patients have had access to the costly and technical equipment previously required. Recent technological advances in the form of consumer Virtual Reality (VR) systems (e.g. Oculus Rift and Samsung Gear), however, now make widespread use of VRET in clinical settings and as self-help applications possible. In this literature review, we detail the current state of VR technology and discuss important therapeutic considerations in designing self-help and clinician-led VRETs, such as platform choice, exposure progression design, inhibitory learning strategies, stimuli tailoring, gamification, virtual social learning and more. We illustrate how these therapeutic components can be incorporated and utilized in VRET applications, taking full advantage of the unique capabilities of virtual environments, and showcase some of these features by describing the development of a consumer-ready, gamified self-help VRET application for low-cost commercially available VR hardware. We also raise and discuss challenges in the planning, development, evaluation, and dissemination of VRET applications, including the need for more high-quality research. We conclude by discussing how new technology (e.g. eye-tracking) can be incorporated into future VRETs and how widespread use of VRET self-help applications will enable collection of naturalistic “Big Data” that promises to inform learning theory and behavioral therapy in general.
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| 14. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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Gamified, Automated Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Fear of Spiders : A Single-Subject Trial Under Simulated Real-World Conditions
- 2020
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Ingår i: Frontiers in Psychiatry. - : Frontiers Media SA. - 1664-0640. ; 11
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background: Virtual Reality exposure therapy (VRET) is an evidence-based treatment of phobias and recent research suggests that this applies also to self-contained, automated interventions requiring no therapist guidance. With the advent and growing adoption of consumer VR technology, automated VR intervention have the potential to close the considerable treatment gap for specific phobias through dissemination as consumer applications, self-help at clinics, or as blended treatment. There is however a lack of translational effectiveness studies on VRET treatment effects under real-world conditions.Methods: We conducted a single-arm (n = 25), single-subject study of automated, gamified VRET for fear of spiders, under simulated real-world conditions. After setup and reading instructions, participants completed the automated, single-session treatment by themselves. Self-rated fear of spiders and quality of life served as outcome measures, measured twice before, and one and two weeks after treatment, and at a six-month follow-up. Session characteristics and user experience measures were collected at the end of the session.Results: Mixed-effects modeling revealed a significant and large (d = 1.26) effect of treatment-onset on phobia symptoms (p < .001), and a small (d = 0.49) effect on quality of life (p = .025). Results were maintained at a six-month follow-up (p > .053). The intervention was tolerable and practical. There were no significant correlations between any user experience measure and decrease in phobia symptoms (p > .209).Conclusions: An automated VRET intervention for fear of spiders showed equivalent effects on phobia symptoms under effectiveness conditions as previously reported under efficacy conditions. These results suggest that automated VRET applications are promising self-help treatments also when provided under real-world conditions.
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| 15. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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How to Treat Depression With Low-Intensity Virtual Reality Interventions : Perspectives on Translating Cognitive Behavioral Techniques Into the Virtual Reality Modality and How to Make Anti-Depressive Use of Virtual Reality–Unique Experiences
- 2019
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Ingår i: Frontiers in Psychiatry. - : Frontiers Media SA. - 1664-0640. ; 10
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Depression is a common mental disorder with a large treatment gap. Low-intensity, automated virtual reality (VR) interventions (not requiring a therapist) is a scalable and promising solution now that VR is an accessible and mature, consumer technology. Yet unlike with phobias, there have been few attempts at translating evidence-based cognitive behavioral therapeutic (CBT) techniques for depression into the VR modality. In this paper, we discuss how specific CBT techniques can be made into VR experiences, including psychoeducation, behavioral activation, cognitive restructuring, and social skills training. We also discuss how VR-unique experiences, such as alternative embodiment and virtual pet interactions, can be made therapeutic. Creating a pre-clinical and clinical evidence base for these types of novel interventions should be considered a research priority, and high-quality development on par with other consumer VR applications will be essential to the success of any consumer-targeted intervention. If this is achieved, low-intensity VR interventions for depression have great potential to make an impact on public mental health.
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| 16. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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Is Continued Improvement After Automated Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Spider Phobia Explained by Subsequent in-vivo Exposure? : A First Test of the Lowered Threshold Hypothesis
- 2021
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Ingår i: Frontiers in Psychiatry. - : Frontiers Media SA. - 1664-0640. ; 12
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Consumer Virtual Reality (VR) technology offers a powerful, immersive medium for scalable dissemination of mental health interventions. Decades of research has shown VR exposure therapy to be efficacious in the treatment of anxiety disorders and that the fear reduction generalizes to real-world stimuli. Many studies also report continued improvement over time, after discontinuing VR use. The lowered threshold hypothesis states that this continued improvement is moderated by lowering the threshold to conduct subsequent in-vivo exposure. The current study is the first to formally test this hypothesis, using data from a recent trial on automated VR exposure therapy for spider phobia, in which participants (n = 49) were followed for 1 year, completing assessments 1 week, 3 and 12 months post-treatment. The assessment included validated self-report of phobia symptoms, a standardized behavioral approach test featuring a real spider, and a questionnaire for self-reporting frequency of in-vivo exposures since last assessment. Number of in-vivo exposures was found to be independently associated with greater symptom decrease in longitudinal outcome models. In sequential structural equation models, immediate post-treatment symptom reduction was associated with subsequent in-vivo exposures, which in turn was associated with continued symptom reduction. However, this applied only to self-reported phobia symptoms (not behavioral avoidance) and no associations were found past 3 months. Our findings offer preliminary, partial support for the lowered threshold hypothesis, suggesting that VR exposure interventions may benefit from including explicit in-virtuo to in-vivotransitioning components.
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| 17. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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Predicting treatment outcomes after Virtual Reality exposure therapy using gaze proxy data collected during exposure : Preliminary findings
- 2018
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- BACKGROUND: Virtual Reality exposure therapy (VRET) is an efficacious treatment of phobias and allows for automatic data collection during standardized yet naturalistic exposure paradigms, yet next to no research has explored the clinical potential of such data. GOALS: To explore the predictive potential of using gaze proxy data collected during VRET to predict treatment outcomes. METHODS: Gaze focus proxy data from n=29 participants undergoing gamified, self-help VRET for spider phobia were extracted, compiled, and modeled. The VRET session featured eight levels with increasingly frightening spiders, each with an approach task requiring participants to keep looking at the phobic object for a specified time. Relative spider gaze focus was defined as time spent looking at each spider at each level (derived from head movement and overlap) divided by total time in level. High- versus low-improvement was defined using median-split on subsequent improvements on an in-vivo behavioral approach task. RESULTS: During the final three levels of the exposure session, relative spider focus time was initially lower among high-improvers (p=.039) and the decrease was lower over levels than among the low-improvers (p=.029). This suggests that non-improvers experienced a fear level mismatch during the final exposure phase. There were no differences in gaze patterns during other phases of the session. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary results suggest that gaze proxy data automatically collected during VRET, even when rudimentary, can be used to predict treatment outcomes, and may thus be used to automatically personalize the exposure design of VRET self-help applications during actual use, to increase efficacy.
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| 18. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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The Potential of Consumer-Targeted Virtual Reality Relaxation Applications : Descriptive Usage, Uptake and Application Performance Statistics for a First-Generation Application
- 2019
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Ingår i: Frontiers in Psychology. - : Frontiers Media S.A.. - 1664-1078. ; 10
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Virtual Reality (VR) technology can be used to create immersive environments that promote relaxation and distraction, yet it is only with the recent advent of consumer VR platforms that such applications have the potential for widespread dissemination, particularly in the form of consumer-targeted self-help applications available at regular digital marketplaces. If widely distributed and used as intended, such applications have the potential to make a much-needed impact on public mental health. In this study, we report real-world aggregated uptake, usage and application performance statistics from a first-generation consumer-targeted VR relaxation application which has been publicly available for almost 2 years. While a total of 40,000 unique users signals an impressive dissemination potential, average session duration was lower than expected, and the data suggests a low number of recurrent users. Usage of headphones and auxiliary input devices was relatively low, and some application performance issues were evident (e.g., lower than intended framerate and occurrence of overheating). These findings have important implications for the design of the future VR relaxation applications, revealing primarily that user engagement needs to be addressed in the early stage of development by including features that promote prolonged and recurrent use (e.g., gamification elements).
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| 19. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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Therapist-led and at-home one-session Virtual Reality exposure therapy for public speaking anxiety using consumer hardware and software, with online maintenance : A randomized controlled trial
- 2017
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Introduction: Exposure therapy is an effective treatment of public speaking anxiety (PSA), yet inherent logistic challenges prevent widespread dissemination. Previous research has revealed that Virtual Reality (VR) may be effectively used for realistic stimuli presentation, but past generations of VR hardware have been inaccessible and expensive. We reasoned that VR stimuli, delivered using modern consumer hardware and software, would enable one-session treatment of PSA, both in the form of traditional therapist-led treatment and as an internet intervention.Methods: N=50 adult participants from the general public with clinically significant PSA were recruited and randomized to either therapist-led one-session treatment followed by online maintenance promoting in-vivo exposure, or waiting-list. The three-hour exposure session included psychoeducation and had participants conducting speech exercises, framed as behavioral experiments targeting idiosyncratic catastrophic beliefs, in front of virtual audiences, and listening to audio recording afterwards. Primary outcome measure was selfreported PSA, assessed using a validated instrument, measured before and after the treatment session, weekly during the four-week maintenance period, and at the end. After the first phase of the study, the waiting-list group received a simple VR headset by post and were given access to an online version of the same treatment (including the maintenance program), conducted their own one-session treatment followed by the same maintenance program, and reported PSA using the same intervals as before. Data were analyzed using mixed effects modeling.Results: A significant time*group effect was found such that the treatment group reported a 6.92-point larger decrease in PSA symptoms per treatment step than the waiting-list, corresponding to a between-group d=0.84 after the one-session treatment, growing to d=1.56 after the maintenance period. Piece-wise modeling of the waiting-list group’s PSA scores before and after they received their at-home equivalent treatment revealed a 6.39-point difference in decrease (per step) after receiving treatment compared to before, corresponding to a within-group d=1.22 after the at-home one-session treatment, growing to d=1.78 after the maintenance period.Conclusions: This trial demonstrates that simple, consumer VR hardware and software can be used to treat PSA using a one-session format, with large effect sizes. To our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate the potential of internet-administered, at-home VR treatment, the results of which are promising.
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| 20. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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Therapist-led and self-led one-session Virtual Reality exposure therapy for public speaking anxiety with consumer hardware and software : A randomized controlled trial
- 2018
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Public speaking anxiety (PSA) is a common condition which can be treated effectively with exposure therapy. However, inherent difficulties in stimuli presentation and control limits dissemination and the therapeutic potential. Virtual Reality (VR) technology has the potential to resolve these issues and provide a scalable platform for self-help interventions. No previous study has examined whether this can be achieved using the first generation of consumer VR hardware and software. In the current trial, n=25+25 participants were randomized to either one-session VR exposure therapy for PSA followed by a four-week internet-administered VR to in-vivo transition program, or a waiting-list. Linear mixed effects modeling revealed significant, large (within Cohen’s d=1.67) decreases in self-reported PSA. The waiting-list was then given access to an internet-administered, self-led version of the same VR exposure therapy to be conducted at home, followed by the same transition program. Dual-slope mixed effects modeling revealed significant, large (d=1.35) decreases in self-reported PSA. Results were maintained or improved at the six-month follow-up. We show for the first time that low-cost, off-the-shelf consumer VR hardware and software can be used to conduct exposure therapy for PSA, both in the traditional, previously unpractical one-session format, and in a novel self-led, at-home format.
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| 21. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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Therapist-led and self-led one-session virtual reality exposure therapy for public speaking anxiety with consumer hardware and software : A randomized controlled trial
- 2019
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Ingår i: Journal of Anxiety Disorders. - : Elsevier BV. - 0887-6185 .- 1873-7897. ; 61, s. 45-54
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Public speaking anxiety (PSA) is a common condition which can be treated effectively with exposure therapy. However, inherent difficulties in stimuli presentation and control limits dissemination and the therapeutic potential. Virtual Reality (VR) technology has the potential to resolve these issues and provide a scalable platform for self-help interventions. No previous study has examined whether this can be achieved using the first generation of consumer VR hardware and software. In the current trial, n = 25 + 25 participants were randomized to either one-session therapist-led VR exposure therapy for PSA followed by a four-week internet-administered VR to in-vivo transition program, or a waiting-list. Linear mixed effects modeling revealed significant, large (within Cohen’s d = 1.67) decreases in self-reported PSA. The waiting-list was then given access to an internet-administered, self-led version of the same VR exposure therapy to be conducted at home, followed by the same transition program. Dual-slope mixed effects modeling revealed significant, large (d = 1.35) decreases in self-reported PSA. Results were maintained or improved at six- and twelve-month follow-ups. We show for the first time that low-cost, off-the-shelf consumer VR hardware and software can be used to conduct exposure therapy for PSA, both in the traditional, previously impractical one-session format, and in a novel self-led, at-home format.
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| 22. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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Virtual Reality exposure therapy for public speaking anxiety in routine care : a single-subject effectiveness trial
- 2021
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Ingår i: Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1650-6073 .- 1651-2316. ; 50:1, s. 67-87
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Virtual Reality (VR) can be used as a therapeutic tool to conduct efficacious in-session exposure therapy by presenting virtual equivalents of phobic stimuli, yet past hardware restrictions hindered implementation in routine care and effectiveness studies. The current study examines the effectiveness of a VR-assisted treatment protocol for public speaking anxiety with demonstrated efficacy, this time in routine care, using affordable VR hardware. Participants (n = 23) were recruited via a private clinic and treated by one of four psychologists with only minimal VR-training. Using a single-subject design and dual-slope modeling (adjusting the treatment-onset slope for treatment effects), we found a significant, large decrease in self-rated public speaking anxiety following the primary three-hour session, similar in magnitude to the previous efficacy trial. Multilevel modeling of in-session process measures suggests that the protocol works as intended, by decreasing catastrophic belief expectancy and distress, and increasing perceived performance quality. Adherence to the online transition program that followed-encouraging in-vivo exposure-was relatively poor, yet symptoms decrease continued. No change was observed over the three-month follow-up period. We conclude that VR exposure therapy can be effective under routine care conditions and is an attractive approach for future, large-scale implementation and effectiveness trials.
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| 23. |
- Lindner, Philip, et al.
(författare)
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What is so frightening about spiders? Self‐rated and self‐disclosed impact of different characteristics and associations with phobia symptoms
- 2019
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Ingår i: Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. - : Wiley. - 0036-5564 .- 1467-9450. ; 60:1, s. 1-6
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Spider phobia is a common and impairing mental disorder, yet little is known about what characteristics of spiders that spider phobic individuals find frightening. Using screening data from a clinical trial, we explored which characteristics that spider‐fearful individuals (n = 194) rated as having the greatest impact on fear, used factor analysis to group specific characteristics, and explored linear associations with self‐reported phobia symptoms. Second, a guided text‐mining approach was used to extract the most common words in free‐text responses to the question: “What is it about spiders that you find frightening?” Both analysis types suggested that movement‐related characteristics of spiders were the most important, followed by appearance characteristics. There were, however, no linear associations with degree of phobia symptoms. Our findings reveal the importance of targeting movement‐related fears in in‐vivo exposure therapy for spider phobia and using realistically animated spider stimuli in computer‐based experimental paradigms and clinical interventions such as Virtual Reality exposure therapy.
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| 24. |
- Miloff, Alexander, et al.
(författare)
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Automated virtual reality exposure therapy for spider phobia vs. in-vivo one-session treatment : A randomized non-inferiority trial
- 2019
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Ingår i: Behaviour Research and Therapy. - : Elsevier BV. - 0005-7967 .- 1873-622X. ; 118, s. 130-140
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This study compared the efficacy of a technician-assisted single-session virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) for the treatment of spider phobia featuring low-cost consumer-available hardware and novel automated software to gold-standard in-vivo one-session treatment (OST), using a parallel group randomized non-inferiority design. Method Participants (N = 100) were randomized to VRET and OST arms. Assessors blinded to treatment allocation evaluated participants at pre- and post-treatment as well follow-up (3 and 12 months) using a behavioral approach test (BAT) and self-rated fear of spider, anxiety, depression and quality-of-life scales. A maximum post-treatment difference of 2-points on the BAT qualified as non-inferiority margin. Results Linear mixed models noted large, significant reductions in behavioral avoidance and self-reported fear in both groups at post-treatment, with VRET approaching the strong treatment benefits of OST over time. Non-inferiority was identified at 3- and 12- months follow-up but was significantly worse until 12-months. There was no significant difference on a questionnaire measuring negative effects. Conclusions Automated VRET efficaciously reduced spider phobia symptoms in the short-term and was non-inferior to in-vivo exposure therapy in the long-term. VRET effectiveness trials are warranted to evaluate real-world benefits and non-specific therapeutic factors accruing from the presence of a technician during treatment. ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02533310).
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| 25. |
- Miloff, Alexander, et al.
(författare)
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Cognitive bias measurement and social anxiety disorder : Correlating self-report data and attentional bias
- 2015
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Ingår i: Internet Interventions. - : Elsevier. - 2214-7829. ; 2:3, s. 227-234
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Social anxiety disorder (SAD) and attentional bias are theoretically connected in cognitive behavioral therapeutic models. In fact, there is an emerging field focusing on modifying attentional bias as a stand-alone treatment. However, it is unclear to what degree these attentional biases are present before commencing treatment. The purpose of this study was to measure pre-treatment attentional bias in 153 participants diagnosed with SAD using a home-based Internet version of the dot-probe paradigm. Results showed no significant correlation for attentional bias (towards or away from negative words or faces) and the self-rated version of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS-SR). However, two positive correlations were found for the secondary measures Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 (GAD-7) and Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ-9). These indicated that those with elevated levels of anxiety and depression had a higher bias towards negative faces in neutral–negative and positive–negative valence combinations, respectively. The unreliability of the dot-probe paradigm and home-based Internet delivery are discussed to explain the lack of correlations between LSAS-SR and attentional bias. Changes to the dot-probe task are suggested that could improve reliability.
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| 26. |
- Miloff, Alexander, et al.
(författare)
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Is virtual reality treatment for spider phobia noninferior to traditional one-session treatment? The results of a randomized-controlled trial
- 2016
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Ingår i: EABCT 2016 Abstract Book. ; , s. 753-753
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Konferensbidrag (populärvet., debatt m.m.)abstract
- This is the first large randomized-controlled trial to evaluate whether commercially available VR hardware and software can be used for exposure therapy. The aim of this study is to compare gold-standard One Session Treatment (OST) for reduction of spider phobia symptoms and avoidance behaviour using in vivo spiders and a human therapist, to a newly developed single-session gamified Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) application with modern, consumer-available VR hardware, virtual spiders, and a virtual therapist. Subjects (N = 100) with spider phobia, diagnosed, and meeting inclusion criteria were recruited from the general population and randomized to 2 treatment arms. In 1-week intervals, pre-measurement, 3-hr treatment and post-measurement were completed with an in-vivo behavioral approach test (BAT) serving as the primary outcome measure for both groups. This study was powered to detect a non-inferiority margin of a 2-point between-group difference on the BAT, with a standard deviation of 4 (at 80% power). 98 patients commenced treatment and 97 patients completed post-measurement. Per protocol analysis indicated VR was not non-inferior to OST. Repeated-measures ANOVA identified a significant main effect of time (p < .001) and time x group effect (p < .05). Both OST and VR participants experienced large BAT within-group effect sizes (d = 2.28 and d = 1.45, respectively). OST is the superior treatment option for spider phobia. VRET is an effective alternative if OST cannot be provided, as pure self-help, as the initial intervention in a stepped-care model, or as a possible post-OST booster. Future studies will benefit from evaluating effectiveness of VRET when conducted at home.
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| 27. |
- Miloff, Alexander, et al.
(författare)
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Measuring Alliance Toward Embodied Virtual Therapists in the Era of Automated Treatments With the Virtual Therapist Alliance Scale (VTAS) : Development and Psychometric Evaluation
- 2020
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Ingår i: Journal of Medical Internet Research. - Toronto, ON, Canada : JMIR Publications Inc.. - 1438-8871. ; 22:3
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background: Automated virtual reality exposure therapies (VRETs) are self-help treatments conducted by oneself and supported by a virtual therapist embodied visually and/or with audio feedback. This simulates many of the nonspecific relational elements and common factors present in face-to-face therapy and may be a means of improving adherence to and efficacy of self-guided treatments. However, little is known about alliance toward the virtual therapist, despite alliance being an important predictor of treatment outcome.Objective: In this study, we aimed to evaluate the first alliance instrument developed for use with embodied virtual therapists in an automated treatment format—the Virtual Therapist Alliance Scale (VTAS)—by (1) assessing its psychometric properties, (2) verifying the dimensionality of the scale, and (3) determining the predictive ability of the scale with treatment outcome.Methods: A psychometric evaluation and exploratory factor analysis of the VTAS was conducted using data from two samples of spider-fearful patients treated with VRET and the help of an embodied, voice-based virtual therapist (n=70). Multiple regression models and bivariate correlations were used to assess the VTAS relationship with treatment outcome, according to self-reported fear and convergence with presence and user-friendliness process measures.Results: The VTAS showed a sound two-factor solution composed of a primary factor covering task, goal, and copresence; adequate internal consistency; and good convergent validity, including moderate correlation (r=.310, P=.01) with outcomes over follow-up.Conclusions: These preliminary results suggest that alliance toward a virtual therapist is a significant predictor of treatment outcome, favors the importance of a task-goal over bond-factor, and should be explored in studies with larger sample sizes and in additional forms of embodiment.
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| 28. |
- Miloff, Alexander, et al.
(författare)
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Single-session gamified virtual reality exposure therapy for spider phobia vs. traditional exposure therapy : study protocol for a randomized controlled non-inferiority trial
- 2016
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Ingår i: Trials. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1745-6215. ; 17
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background: Traditional one-session exposure therapy (OST) in which a patient is gradually exposed to feared stimuli for up to 3 h in a one-session format has been found effective for the treatment of specific phobias. However, many individuals with specific phobia are reluctant to seek help, and access to care is lacking due to logistic challenges of accessing, collecting, storing, and/or maintaining stimuli. Virtual reality (VR) exposure therapy may improve upon existing techniques by facilitating access, decreasing cost, and increasing acceptability and effectiveness. The aim of this study is to compare traditional OST with in vivo spiders and a human therapist with a newly developed single-session gamified VR exposure therapy application with modern VR hardware, virtual spiders, and a virtual therapist. Methods/design: Participants with specific phobia to spiders (N = 100) will be recruited from the general public, screened, and randomized to either VR exposure therapy (n = 50) or traditional OST (n = 50). A behavioral approach test using in vivo spiders will serve as the primary outcome measure. Secondary outcome measures will include spider phobia questionnaires and self-reported anxiety, depression, and quality of life. Outcomes will be assessed using a non-inferiority design at baseline and at 1, 12, and 52 weeks after treatment. Discussion: VR exposure therapy has previously been evaluated as a treatment for specific phobias, but there has been a lack of high-quality randomized controlled trials. A new generation of modern, consumer-ready VR devices is being released that are advancing existing technology and have the potential to improve clinical availability and treatment effectiveness. The VR medium is also particularly suitable for taking advantage of recent phobia treatment research emphasizing engagement and new learning, as opposed to physiological habituation. This study compares a market-ready, gamified VR spider phobia exposure application, delivered using consumer VR hardware, with the current gold standard treatment. Implications are discussed.
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| 29. |
- Miloff, Alexander, et al.
(författare)
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Single-session gamified virtual reality exposure therapy for spider phobia vs. traditional exposure therapy : A randomized-controlled trial
- 2016
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Introduction: Traditional one-session therapy (OST) in which a patient is gradually exposed to feared stimuli for up to 3hrs in a one-session format has been found effective for the treatment of specific phobias. However, many suffering from specific phobia are reluctant to seek help and access to care is lacking. Virtual reality (VR) exposure therapy using a smartphone may improve upon existing techniques by facilitating access, lowering cost, and increasing acceptability and effectiveness. The aim of this study was to compare traditional OST with in-vivo spiders and a human therapist to a newly developed single-session gamified VR exposure therapy application with modern VR headsets, virtual spiders and a virtual therapist.Method: Participants with specific phobia to spiders (N=100) were recruited from the general public, screened and randomized to either OST (N=50) or VR exposure therapy (N=50) using the smartphone-based Samsung Gear VR system. A behavioral approach test using in-vivo spiders served as the primary outcome measure. Secondary outcome measures included spider phobia questionnaires, and self-reported anxiety, depression and quality of life. Outcomes were assessed 1-week before and after treatment and at follow-up (12 and 52 weeks).Results: At the time of submitting this abstract all participants have been included and randomized and a large portion has also received the allotted treatment. However, since the study uses strict blinding, results will not be available until March 2016.Discussion: VR exposure therapy has previously been evaluated as a treatment for specific phobias but there has been a lack of high-quality randomized controlled trials. A new generation of modern VR devices are being released which advance upon existing technology and have the potential to improve clinical availability and treatment effectiveness.Conclusion: Preliminary clinical observations suggest that single-session gamified virtual reality exposure therapy using a smartphone is effective for the treatment of spider phobia.
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| 30. |
- Miloff, Alexander, et al.
(författare)
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The challenger app for social anxiety disorder : New advances in mobile psychological treatment
- 2015
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Ingår i: Internet Interventions. - : Elsevier. - 2214-7829. ; 2:4, s. 382-391
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a common debilitating mental illness with large negative effects on quality of life and economic productivity. Modern psychotherapy treatments utilizing cognitive–behavioral theory are increasingly delivered over the Internet and more recently using smartphone applications. The Challenger App written natively for the Apple iPhone was developed at the Stockholm University Department of Psychology for the treatment of SAD and uses a number of advanced features not previously seen in past mental health applications; these include real-time location awareness, notifications, anonymous social interaction between users, a high-degree of personalization and use of gamification techniques. This paper explores design considerations for the various components of the app, their theoretical and evidence base, and research opportunities that exist for apps making use of these novel features.
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| 31. |
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| 32. |
- Miloff, Alexander, et al.
(författare)
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VIMSE - Gamified exposure therapy for use on modern VR headsets
- 2015
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Ingår i: SWEsrii 2015. ; , s. 17-17
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Konferensbidrag (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- VIMSE is a new spider phobia exposure application developed for use on next generation VR headsets. Developed by Mimerse AB for the Stockholm University Department of Psychology the application advances exposure technology along a number of important fronts. VIMSE uses gamification to increase user engagement and learning, is fully automated with a virtual therapist to allow at home-self care, contains multiple open-ended environments and lighting to ensure exposure in multiple contexts, as well as a range of spiders, spider behaviors and stimuli intensity levels to ensure gradually increasing exposure levels. Collaboration with a for-profit corporation ensures the application is market-ready and scalable rather than restricted to a research environment. VIMSE is currently completing clinical trials comparing it to gold-standard one session therapy phobia treatment in a group of 100 spider phobics.
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| 33. |
- Miloff, Alexander, 1982-
(författare)
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Virtual reality exposure therapy for spider phobia
- 2020
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Exposure therapy for specific phobia involving systematic and repeated presentation of an aversive stimuli or situation is a highly effective treatment for reducing fear and anxiety. Dissemination of this evidence-based treatment has proved challenging, however, and for over 20 years an alternative method of delivery using virtual reality technology has been explored with positive results. This thesis consists of three empirical studies examining a new generation of virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) that by using automation, inexpensive hardware, and downloadable software aims to ensure that a highly efficacious exposure therapy can be made available to almost anyone. Study I evaluated the efficacy of this novel automated VRET for spider phobia as compared to gold-standard in-vivo one-session treatment (OST) using a randomized non-inferiority design. Results indicated that large effect size reductions in self-reported fear were evident at post-assessment in both treatments and the automated VRET was not inferior to OST at 3- and 12-months follow-up according to behavioral approach test, but was significantly worse until 12-month follow-up. No significant difference was noted on a questionnaire measuring negative effects of treatment. Study II conducted a process measure evaluation of patient alliance towards the virtual therapist used in the VRET treatment with a purpose-built questionnaire entitled the Virtual Therapist Alliance Scale (VTAS). Exploratory factor analysis indicated a sound two-factor solution composed of a primary task, goal and co-presence factor and a secondary bond and empathy factor. Psychometric evaluation of the VTAS suggested good internal consistency, and a moderate correlation between the VTAS and change in self-reported fear over follow-up. Study III assessed what individuals with a fear of spiders found most frightening about spiders. Both quantitative ratings and qualitative descriptions indicated that movement characteristics were reported as most fear provoking and to a lesser extent appearance characteristics, however factor analysis of scores in these categories did not find a correlation with participant baseline self-reported fear. Overall, the above findings suggest that VRET is a potential alternative to OST for the treatment of spider phobia also with respect to therapist alliance, and spider movement characteristics should be emphasized in future VRET treatments.
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| 34. |
- Vlaescu, G., et al.
(författare)
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Features and functionality of the Iterapi platform for internet-based psychological treatment
- 2017
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- The purpose of this article is to describe an internet-based platform for improving symptoms and quality of life for people with psychological and behavioural health problems such as depression, anxiety, phobia, psychological trauma, hearing loss and tinnitus. The online platform, called Iterapi, was developed at the Department of Behavioural Sciences and Learning at Linköping University, Sweden and has been running for nearly two decades and used in many randomized controlled trials and outpatient treatments.The intention of this article is to share our experience with developing such a treatment solution and the process flow and elements of running internet-based psychological interventions. This will likely be of use to developers building similar services, therapists considering integrating such approaches in their practices and institutions, as well as researchers curious about the functions included on the platform and methodology used for running studies.We describe the security aspects of the platform, central concepts underlying its development, how the platform can be used in a study or treatment and the main features and functions the platform offers. We comment on practical considerations regarding blending of methods within the platform, such as self-help treatments with asynchronous communication and real-time text chat and video conversations. We also point out the advantages of using Internet-assisted treatments, the challenges that we have faced and future planned upgrades.
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| 35. |
- Wiens, Stefan, et al.
(författare)
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Electrophysiological correlates of in vivo and virtual reality exposure therapy in spider phobia
- 2022
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Ingår i: Psychophysiology. - : Wiley. - 0048-5772 .- 1469-8986. ; 59:12
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Specific phobia can be treated successfully with exposure therapy. Although exposure therapy has strong effects on self-reported ratings and behavioral avoidance, effects on measures derived from electroencephalography (EEG) are scant and unclear. To fill this gap, spider-phobic individuals received either in-vivo or virtual reality exposure treatment. Patients were tested twice (one week before and after treatment), and control subjects once. In each session, EEG was recorded to spider pictures as well as other positive, negative, and neutral pictures. During EEG recording, participants performed a simple detection task while task-irrelevant pictures were shown in the background. The task was used to reduce potential confounding effects from shifts of attention. After the task, subjects were shown the pictures again and rated each in terms of their emotional reaction (arousal and pleasantness). The results showed that before treatment, patients rated spiders as more negative than did control subjects. Patients also showed elevated early posterior negativity (EPN) and late positive potential (LPP) to spiders. After treatment, the negative emotional ratings of spiders were substantially reduced. Critically, Bayesian analyses suggested that EPN and LPP were unaffected by treatment and that the treatment groups did not differ in their responses (EPN, LPP, and ratings). These findings suggest that the effects of in vivo and virtual reality exposure therapy are similar and that the initial stages of motivated attention (EPN and LPP) are unaffected by treatment.
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