| 1. |
- Robins Wahlin, Tarja-Brita, et al.
(författare)
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Episodic Learning and Memory in Prodromal Huntington’s Disease : The Role of Multimodal Encoding and Selective Reminding
- 2015
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Ingår i: International Journal of Clinical Medicine. - : Scientific Research Publishing, Inc.. - 2158-284X .- 2158-2882. ; 6:11, s. 876-886
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This study investigated episodic memory in prodromal HD. Three groups were compared (N=70): mutation carriers with less than 12.5 years to disease onset (n=16), mutation carriers with 12.5 or more years to disease onset (n=16), and noncarriers (n=38). Episodic memory was assessed using the Fuld Object Memory Evaluation, which includes multimodal presentation and selective reminding, and the Claeson-Dahl Learning Test which includes verbal repeated presentation and recall trials. Both carrier groups demonstrated deficient episodic memory compared to noncarriers. The results suggest deficient episodic memory in prodromal HD, and that inconsistent retrieval contributes to these deficits. Multimodal presentation attenuates the deficits.
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| 2. |
- Robins Wahlin, Tarja-Brita, et al.
(författare)
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Non-verbal and verbal fluency in prodromal Huntington’s disease
- 2015
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Ingår i: Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders Extra. - : S. Karger AG. - 1664-5464. ; 5:3, s. 517-529
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background: This study examines nonverbal (design) and verbal (phonemic and semantic) fluency in prodromal Huntington’s disease (HD). An accumulating body of research indicates subtle deficits in cognitive functioning among prodromal mutation carriers for HD. Methods: Performance was compared between 32 mutation carriers and 38 noncarriers in order to examine the magnitude of impairment across fluency tasks. The Predicted Years To Onset (PYTO) in mutation carriers was calculated by a regression equation and used to divide the group according to whether onset was predicted less than 12.75 years (HD+CLOSE; n=16) or greater than 12.75 years (HD+DISTANT; n=16). Results: The results indicate that both nonverbal and verbal fluency are sensitive to subtle impairment in prodromal HD. HD+CLOSE group produced fewer items in all assessed fluency tasks compared to noncarriers. HD+DISTANT produced fewer drawings than noncarriers in the nonverbal task. PYTO correlated significantly with all measures of nonverbal and verbal fluency. Conclusion: The pattern of results indicates that subtle cognitive deficits exist in prodromal HD, and that less structured tasks with high executive demands are the most sensitive in detecting divergence from the normal range of functioning. These selective impairments can be attributed to the early involvement of frontostriatal circuitry and frontal lobes.
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| 3. |
- Wahlin, Åke, et al.
(författare)
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Longitudinal evidence of the impact of normal thyroid stimulating hormone variations on cognitive functioning in very old age.
- 2005
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Ingår i: Psychoneuroendocrinology. - : Elsevier BV. - 0306-4530. ; 30:7, s. 625-637
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The purpose of this study was to examine longitudinal associations among thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels and cognitive performance. Data collected at the first three assessment times, approximately 3 years apart, are reported for the survivors (nZ45) from a previously published cross-sectional study. Participants were aged 75–93 years at baseline, and data reported were collected in the Kungsholmen Project, a longitudinal project investigating aging and dementia. Analyses revealed that although declining verbal fluency and visuospatial abilities were accompanied by simultaneously declining TSH levels, the pattern of crosssectional and longitudinal results are interpreted such that declining TSH levels may have caused episodic memory deficits later on. These results were obtained in the examination of 6-year but not 3-year change, and after removal of the cognitive variation associated with depressive mood symptoms.
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| 4. |
- Wahlin, Åke, et al.
(författare)
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Vitamin B Status and Cognitive Performance in Preclinical and Clinical Alzheimer’s Disease : Data from the Kungsholmen Project
- 2008
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Ingår i: Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders. - : S. Karger AG. - 1420-8008 .- 1421-9824. ; 25:1, s. 23-31
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background/Aims: The impact of vitamin B status on cognitive functioning in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is disputed. Using a population-based sample, we examined the associations of vitamin B12 and folate with cognitive functioning in clinical (n = 44) and preclinical (n = 39) AD. Methods: The groups were subdivided in terms of low (<200 pmol/l) versus normal levels of B12 and low (<13 nmol/l) versus normal folate levels. Participants were administered tests of verbal and nonverbal episodic memory, visuospatial abilities and verbal fluency. Results: As expected, the preclinical AD group performed better than the AD group across most cognitive tests. More interestingly, the effects of low vitamin B12 and folate levels were negligible across all cognitive tests in clinical and preclinical AD. Conclusion: These findings suggest that the influence of vitamin B deficiency on cognitive functioning is overshadowed by the neurodegenerative processes associated with AD.
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| 5. |
- Fonad, Edit, et al.
(författare)
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Associations between falls and general health, nutrition, dental health and medication use in Swedish home-dwelling people aged 75 years and over.
- 2015
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Ingår i: Health & Social Care in the Community. - : Hindawi Limited. - 0966-0410 .- 1365-2524. ; 23:6, s. 594-604
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- ABSTRACT The vast majority of elderly people in Sweden live in private homes in their communities for as long as possible. Poor health and a high risk of falls are very common among this group. This cross-sectional study investigates the association between falls and general health, appetite, dental health, and the use of multiple medications among home-dwelling men and women aged ≥75 years. Data were collected between October 2008 and March 2009 using a postal questionnaire. A total of 1243 people participated in the questionnaire survey (74% response rate), of which 1193 were included in the analysis. The majority of participants were women (n = 738, 62%). Falls in the previous 12-month period were reported by 434 (36%) participants. Most fallers (n = 276, 64%) were women. The majority of the fallers lived in a flat (n = 250, 58%). Poor health (aOR: 1.61; CI: 1.34-1.95), poor dental health (aOR: 1.22; CI: 1.07-1.39) and the use of four or more types of medication daily (aOR: 1.13; CI: 1.03-1.25) were significantly associated with falls in all participants. Poor dental health was found irrespectively of living in a flat (aOR: 1.23; CI: 1.04-1.46) or living in a house (aOR: 1.28; CI: 1.02-1.61), and both were significantly associated with falls. The use of more than four different types of medication daily (aOR: 1.25; CI: 1.11-1.41) was associated with falls for those living in a flat. The results highlight that falls are associated with poor general health, poor dental health and the use of four or more types of medication daily. Health professionals should provide health promotion education and investigate dental health and risk factors for oral disease. Likewise, medical and clinical practices of physicians and community care nurses should include assessing the risk of falling, and treatment that predisposes falls.© 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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| 6. |
- Fonad, Edit, et al.
(författare)
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Falls and fall risk among nursing home residents
- 2008
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Ingår i: Journal of Clinical Nursing. - Oxford : Wiley. - 0962-1067 .- 1365-2702. ; 17:1, s. 126-134
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Aim and objectives. The aim of this study was to identify risk factors for falls in older people living in nursing homes. Background. Impaired cognitive function and a poor sense of orientation could lead to an increase in falls among those with impaired freedom of movement. Many accidents occur while an older person is walking or being moved. Method. The study was carried out over four years (2000-2003) and 21 nursing home units in five municipal homes for older people in Stockholm, Sweden, participated. A questionnaire was sent to staff nurses, including questions on fall risk assessments, falls, fractures, medication and freedom-restricting measures, such as wheelchairs with belts and bed rails. The data were aggregated and not patient-bound. The study covered 2343 reported incidents. Results. There was a significant correlation between falls and fractures (r = 0.365, p = 0.004), fall risk and use of wheelchairs (r = 0.406, p = 0.001, safety belts (r = 0.403, p = 0.001 and bed rails (r = 0.446, p = 0.000) and between the occurrence of fractures and the use of sleeping pills with benzodiazepines (r = 0.352, p = 0.005). Associations were also found between fall risk and the use of anti-depressants (r = 0.412, p = 0.001). Conclusions. In clinical practice, patient safety is very important. Preventative measures should focus on risk factors associated with individuals, including their environment. Wheelchairs with safety belts and bed rails did not eliminate falls but our results support the hypothesis that they might be protective when used selectively with less anti-depressants and sleeping pills, especially benzodiazepines.
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| 7. |
- Fonad, Edit, et al.
(författare)
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Falls in somatic and dementia wards at Community Care Units
- 2009
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Ingår i: Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences. - Oxford : Wiley. - 0283-9318 .- 1471-6712. ; 23:1, s. 2-10
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Falls and fall injuries are common problems for patients at nursing homes in Sweden. Impaired cognitive function, a poor sense of orientation and a high intake of medicine, can lead to an increase in falls among older people. The objective of this study was to investigate the associations between falls and: fall risks, fractures, the use of physical restraints and the use of certain medications in somatic and dementia wards, respectively. The study design is ecological, and aggregated data regarding falls, fall risk assessments, fractures, the use of physical restraints and medication were collected between 2000 and 2003. The Pearson correlation analysis and regression analyses were used to investigate associations between fall risks, medication, fractures, wheelchair-bound situations, bed rails and falls. The total number of reported fall incidents was 2651; of these, 737 incidents were registered in dementia wards and 1914 in somatic wards. Dementia wards and somatic wards differed regarding falls and fractures, as it was only in dementia wards that falls were associated with fractures. There was also a significant correlation between falls and assessed risk of falling, the use of certain medication, and physical restraints such as wheelchairs and bed rails in dementia wards. Falls at somatic wards were associated with the use of sleeping pills with benzodiazepines. For dementia wards there were associations between falls and fractures, physical restraints and the use of certain medications. Fractures were associated with the use of neuroleptics, sleeping pills and sleeping pills with benzodiazepines. At somatic wards, falls correlated with the use of sleeping pills with benzodiazepines, and with the use of wheelchairs and bed rails.
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| 8. |
- Fonad, Edith, et al.
(författare)
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Moving to and living in a retirement home : focusing on older people´s sense of safety and security
- 2006
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Ingår i: Journal of Housing for the Elderly. - : Taylor & Francis. - 0276-3893 .- 1540-353X. ; 3:20, s. 45-60
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Bad health combined witii deteriorating physical functions force many elderly people to move to a retirement home. The primary focus of this study was to investigate the resident's experience of safety and security. From a sample of 57 residents, 12 persons volunteered to participate in the interview. Data were analyzed with qualitative content analysis. The standard and design of the participant's previous home made mobility difficult and this affected their sense of security. This motivated them to move into an environment where they felt more secure. The environment at the retirement home was predominantly described as secure and safe. The finding shows that the participants felt that safety and security were more important than independence.
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| 9. |
- Frick, Andreas, et al.
(författare)
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Relationships between the National Adult Reading Test and memory.
- 2011
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Ingår i: Neuropsychology. - : American Psychological Association (APA). - 0894-4105 .- 1931-1559. ; 25:3, s. 397-403
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to investigate the relationships between performance on the National Adult Reading Test (NART) and retrospective, concurrent, and prospective memory functioning, as well as between the NART and change in memory functioning over time.METHOD: NART administered in 2005 was used as a predictor for memory functioning in 2001, 2005, and 2008, and change in memory functioning from 2001 to 2008. Outcome measures were Logical Memory II, Letter-Number Sequencing, and Spatial Span from the Wechsler Memory Scale. Participants were 319 healthy women aged 40-79 years at baseline (2001).RESULTS: Significant correlations were found between the number of errors on the NART and memory measures in 2001, 2005, and 2008; Logical Memory II (r = -.41, -.38, -.39, respectively), Letter-Number Sequencing (r = -.38, -.35, -.36, respectively) and Spatial Span (r = -.23, -.22, -.19, respectively; all p values < .001). NART significantly added to predictions of all three measures of memory, after controlling for age, level of education and socioeconomic status. NART also significantly added to predictions of change in Logical Memory II and Letter-Number Sequencing over a 7-year period.CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that the NART is correlated with episodic and working memory, and that the NART added to predictions of change in verbal episodic and working memory. Although the relationships are only moderate at best, the NART may be used in conjunction with demographic information and clinical reasoning to estimate premorbid memory functioning.
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| 10. |
- Josefsson, Karin, et al.
(författare)
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Competence development of registered nurses in municipal elderly care in Sweden : a questionnaire survey
- 2008
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Ingår i: International Journal of Nursing Studies. - : Elsevier BV. - 0020-7489 .- 1873-491X. ; 45:3, s. 428-441
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background: Skilled and specialist registered nurses (RNs) are central to evolving elderly care. The past decades' organisational and structural changes have altered RNs' roles and work situations in municipal elderly care in Sweden. This calls for appropriate educational preparation. However, a substantial proportion of RNs in municipal elderly care lack adequate specialist competence. Aim: The focus of this study was to describe RNs' perceptions of needs and possibilities for competence development in municipal elderly care and compare the perceptions of RNs' who work solely in dementia care (DC) with those who work in general elder care (GC) where older persons have diverse diagnoses. Design: A non-experimental, descriptive and comparative design was used. Settings: Sixty special housing with subunits in a large city in the middle of Sweden. Participants: Participating RNs were a total of 213, with a response rate of 62.3%. Of the 213 RNs, 95 (44.6%) worked in DC and 118 (55.4%) in GC. Method: A structured questionnaire that was specifically designed for this study and focused on needs and possibilities for competence development in nursing. Results: The RNs were on average not lacking or were hardly lacking knowledge in examined domains. However, RNs in GC lacked knowledge of dementia, falls, and fall injures to a greater extent than RNs in DC. RNs in DC perceived greater possibilities for competence development at work. Most RNs requested a better organisation for competence development, especially in GC. The majority of RNs had no supervision. The use of RNs' competence was high, although they used their highest competence about half of the working hours. The employers' financial contribution to RNs' continuing education was poor. Conclusion: A better organisation and greater possibilities for RNs' competence development is needed. The employers need to make a greater contribution financially to RNs' continuing education. It is essential to provide RNs with supervision. (C) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 11. |
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| 12. |
- Josefsson, Karin, et al.
(författare)
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Registered nurses' education and their views on competence development in municipal elderly care in Sweden : a questionnaire survey
- 2007
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Ingår i: International Journal of Nursing Studies. - : Elsevier BV. - 0020-7489 .- 1873-491X. ; 44:2, s. 245-258
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background: Recent changes of municipal elderly care in Sweden have resulted in that persons 65 years and older, previously nursed in hospital facilities, are now being cared for in the municipality. This change has had a significant impact on the work situation of registered nurses (RNs) and calls for appropriate educational preparation to enable RNs to undertake their new roles effectively. Aim: The main focus was to describe RNs' education and their view of competence development in municipal elderly care. Another aim was to compare RNs working solely in dementia care (DC) with those working in general elder care (GC) of older persons with diverse diagnoses. Design: A non-experimental, descriptive design with a survey research approach was used. Settings: Sixty special housing with subunits including those offering daytime activities in a large city in the middle of Sweden. Participants: The number of participating RNs was a total of 213, with a response rate of 62.3%. Of the 213 RNs, 95 (44.6%) worked in DC, and 118 (55.4%) in GC. Method: A questionnaire survey. Results: The findings showed that RNs possessed a broad range of competence. The majority lacked a bachelor's degree in nursing. Few had adequate specialist competence. RNs' in DC wanted to invest more in competence development whereas RNs in GC were more motivated to attain greater authority in the making of important decisions and to seek another position. Conclusion: An important future prospect is to develop the competence of RNs in elderly care. In order to ensure high quality and security in elderly care, it is also essential to increase the number of RNs with specialist competence. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 13. |
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| 14. |
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| 15. |
- Josefsson, Karin, et al.
(författare)
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Violence in municipal care of older people in Sweden as perceived by registered nurses
- 2007
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Ingår i: Journal of Clinical Nursing. - : Wiley. - 0962-1067 .- 1365-2702. ; 16:5, s. 900-910
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Aims. The main aim was to describe registered nurses' perceptions of violence and threats, as well as their access to prevention measures and routines for handling violent behaviour in municipal care of older people. Another aim was to compare nurses' perceptions working solely in dementia care with those working in general elder care where older people have diverse diagnoses. Background. Violence is often reported in care of older people. The development of dementia units and the implementation of reform have changed care of older people. Dementia disorders have been shown to be a predisposing factor to violence. Design. A non-experimental, descriptive design with a survey research approach was used. The setting was 60 special types of housing with subunits in a large town. The response rate was 62% (n = 213). Forty-five per cent (n = 95) of the nurses worked in dementia care and 55% (118) in general elder care. Method. A questionnaire. Results. Nurses had experienced a high degree indirect threats (dementia care, 45%; general elder care, 51%), direct threats of violent acts (dementia care, 35%; general elder care, 44%) and violent acts (dementia care, 41%; general elder care, 43%). Nurses had witnessed violence and threats towards staff (dementia care, 49%; general elder care, 38%). Even care receivers (dementia care, 20%; general elder care, 19%) were subjected to violence and threats. No statistical differences were found between groups. The nurses in dementia care had more access to education in managing violence and threats, as well as routines for handling violence and a door with a lock to their working unit. Conclusion. Violence occurred frequently in municipal care of older people without any difference between dementia care and general elder care. Nurses in dementia care were more often offered education on how to manage violence and had routines for when violence occurs. Relevance to clinical practice. Municipal authorities should increase staff education for handling violence and creating safety routines. Violence needs to be taken seriously with a 'zero tolerance' attitude.
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| 16. |
- Josefsson, Karin, et al.
(författare)
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Work situation of registered nurses in municipal elderly care in Sweden : a questionnaire survey
- 2007
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Ingår i: International Journal of Nursing Studies. - : Elsevier BV. - 0020-7489 .- 1873-491X. ; 44:1, s. 71-82
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Background: Organizational changes have occurred in municipal elderly care in Sweden during the past decades. The 'Adel' reform transferred responsibility for the care of older persons from the county councils to the municipalities. Furthermore, the specialisation in dementia care divided elderly care into two groups: dementia and general care. This change has had a significant impact on the work situation of registered nurses (RNs). Aim: The main focus was to describe RNs' work situation and their characteristics in municipal elderly care. Another aim was to compare RNs working solely in dementia care with those working in general care of older persons with diverse diagnoses. Design: A non-experimental, descriptive design with a survey research approach was used. Settings: Sixty special housing units with underlying units including those offering daytime activities in a large city in the middle of Sweden. Participants: The number of participating RNs was a total of 213, with a response rate of 62.3%. Of the 213 RNs, 95 (44.6%) worked in dementia care, and 118 (55.4%) in general care. Method: A questionnaire survey. Results: The results indicated high levels of time pressure in both groups. Greater knowledge and greater emotional and conflicting demands were found in dementia care. The majority perceived a greater opportunity to plan and perform daily work tasks than to influence the work situation in a wider context. Support at work was perceived as generally high from management and fellow workers and higher in dementia care. Conclusion: It is important to decrease RNs' time pressure and increase their influence on decisions made at work. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| 17. |
- Larsson, Maria, et al.
(författare)
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Olfactory functions in asymptomatic carriers of the Huntington disease mutation.
- 2006
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Ingår i: Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1380-3395 .- 1744-411X. ; 28:8, s. 1373-1380
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Huntington’s disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder initially affecting the basal ganglia and especially the head of the caudate nucleus. Neuropsychological research has indicated that olfactory dysfunction may appear early in HD, prior to the onset of significant motor or cognitive dysfunction. The aim of this study was to examine whether asymptomatic carriers of the Huntington disease mutation also exhibit olfactory dysfunction. To address this issue we presented an extensive olfactory test battery comprising tasks assessing olfactory sensitivity, intensity discrimination, quality discrimination, episodic odor memory, and odor identification, to a group of gene carriers and non-mutation carriers of the disease. The results showed that gene carriers were selectively impaired in discriminating odor quality, although performance did not differ from non-carriers across the other tasks. The role played by striatum and then in particular the caudate nucleus for olfactory processing in general, and for odor quality discrimination in particular, is discussed.
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| 18. |
- Larsson, Maria U., et al.
(författare)
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Phonemic fluency deficits in asymptomatic gene carriers for Huntington's disease
- 2008
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Ingår i: Neuropsychology. - : American Psychological Association (APA). - 0894-4105 .- 1931-1559. ; 22:5, s. 596-605
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The aim of the present study was to investigate verbal fluency in preclinical Huntington's disease (HD). Phonemic and semantic fluency and the rate of word production over time were assessed for 29 asymptomatic gene carriers and 34 noncarriers of HD. The relationship between fluency tasks and other cognitive domains was investigated. Compared to noncarriers, carriers produced fewer words and produced them more slowly in the phonemic fluency task but not in the semantic fluency task. When the carrier group was divided on the basis of Predicted-Years-To-Onset (PYTO), only carriers with <12 PYTO performed worse than noncarriers on both fluency tasks. Correlational analyses revealed that phonemic fluency was associated with cognitive speed and working memory, while semantic fluency was linked with crystallized abilities. The difference between carriers and noncarriers in phonemic fluency and a difference between the two carrier groups (<12 PYTO and ≥12 PYTO) in semantic fluency, but not in phonemic fluency, suggest that frontostriatal deficits may precede temporal involvement in preclinical HD.
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| 19. |
- Robins Wahlin, Tarja-Brita
(författare)
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Cognitive functioning in late senescence : influences of age and health
- 1999
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The overall aim of this doctoral thesis was to investigate potential age-related differences between groups of healthy very old adults from 75 to 96 years of age in various cognitive functions. An additional objective was to examine the influence of individual-difference variables within demographic (e.g., education, gender), psychometric (e.g., general cognitive status; MMSE) and biological (e.g., vitamin B12, folic acid [FA]) domains on cognitive functioning in late life. The studies were conducted within the realm of the Kungsholmen Project, which is a community-based, longitudinal study of persons aged 75 years and above, living in the parish of Kungsholmen, Stockholm. Participants were carefully screened for health, using a variety of exclusion criteria (e.g., dementia, sensory loss, psychiatric disease). Study I and II examined the influence of age on visuospatial ability, spatial orientation, perceptual-motor speed and accuracy, and motor functions of the hands. Results indicated an age-related deterioration in visuospatial abilities spatial orientation and perceptual-motor speed. There were no age-related differences in the tests of hand-motor functioning and perceptual-motor accuracy. Visuospatial performance was higher under self-paced than under paced conditions across the entire age range. Further, results suggested that the abilities underlying time recognition may deteriorate later in the normal aging process than those underlying time drawing. Individual-difference analyses indicated that, in addition to age, visuospatial functioning and spatial orientation were related to MMSE and education in Study I. In Study II, visuospatial functioning and thyroid stimulating hormone were both related to perceptual-motor speed. Study III and IV investigated the effects of low levels of serum vitamin B12 (B12 < 200 pmol/L) and Folic Acid (FA <11 nmol/L), and the influence of levels of thyroxin (T4) and TSH within normal ranges on cognitive performance, respectively. Tasks assessing visuospatial ability, spatial orientation, perceptual-motor speed, short-term memory, verbal fluency and episodic memory were examined. There were differential vitamin-related effects, such that subjects with low vitamin levels showed deficits in visuospatial abilities, perceptual speed, short-term memory, and letter fluency, but not in the remaining tests. In general, the effects of FA exceeded those of B12. T4 was unrelated to cognitive performance although TSH was positively related to episodic memory performance, but not to the remaining tasks. Those effects were independent of age, level of education, and depressive mood symptoms. Finally, Study V examined the degree to which demographic variables and an index of performance IQ can predict episodic memory performance in a longitudinal study targeting optimally healthy very old adults. Subjects were assessed at baseline (T1) and after one (T2) and two (T3) years. There was a modest, but reliable, improvement of both verbal and nonverbal memory performances from T1 to T2, followed by stability from T2 to T3. No predictor variable was related to rate of change from T1 to T2, although PIQ influenced rate of change in verbal memory from T2 to T3. This effect resulted from performance pins among high PIQ subjects and performance decline among low PIQ subjects. The results suggest that changes in episodic memory in very old age may not necessarily be characterized by decline. Specifically, healthy older adults may show stability and, in some, instances, display practice-related gains in verbal episodic memory. The potential for performance gains over time may be greatest for the most cognitively able individuals. Taken together, the studies indicated that the well-known age-related deficits in visuospatial abilities, spatial orientation, and perceptual-motor speed continue into very old age. However, episodic memory may not necessarily decline if practice opportunities are available. In addition to age, low levels of vitamin B 12, and FA were related to deficient performance in cognitive tasks in which fast and accurate processing of novel information is required, but not when pre-existing knowledge structures may be utilized. TSH was positively related to episodic memory performance, which was interpreted in terms of its potential effects on encoding and consolidation processes in episodic memory. At a general level, then, this research underscores the importance of various health-related variables in characterizing late-life cognitive functioning.
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| 20. |
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