| 1. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Catching Up with the West: Chinese Pathways to the Global Middle Class
- 2020
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Ingår i: The China Journal. - : University of Chicago Press. - 1324-9347 .- 1835-8535. ; 84:1, s. 102-127
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Using nationwide household survey data for 2002 and 2013, we investigate how widely Chinese household incomes had caught up to those of the middle class in the developed worldby 2013, the year Xi Jinping came to power. Based on the living standards of the middle-income class in the European Union as our standard of comparison, we estimate that China’s “global middle class” with a similar living standard grew rapidly after 2002, reaching 254 million in 2013. We project that it had grown further to over 450 million by 2018. We describe the characteristics of this middle class, which is predominately urban, largely resides in China’s eastern region, and mainly depends on a wage income. A distinct business middle class exists but is relatively small. Analysis of the chances of attaining a middle-class income reveals the importance of an individual’s circumstances at birth. Parents’ education and occupation matter, and being born with an urban registration (hukou) provides a large advantage. For those born with a rural hukou, the most effective pathways to the middle class are migration and, if possible, obtaining an urban hukou.
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| 2. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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China's Emerging Global Middle Class
- 2017
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Ingår i: The latest changes of income distribution pattern in China - A study on the income distribution of Chinese residents (V). - Beijing, Kina : China Financial & Economic Publishing House.. - 9787509578971 ; , s. 351-385
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This chapter seeks to throw new light on the emergence of the Chinese economic middle class using data from the China Household Income Project from 2002, 2007, and 2013. We find that between 2002 and 2013 China’s income distribution was transformed from a pyramid shape, with a majority having rather low income, to a more olive shape, as the middle class emerged. Defining “middle class” as having an income high enough not to be regarded as poor but also low enough not to be regarded as rich if living in a high-income country, we find that the share of China’s population that was middle class was extremely small in 2002, larger but still less than 10 percent in 2007, but it expanded rapidly from 2007 to 2013 to become one-fifth of China’s population, equivalent to roughly 250 million people. China’s middle class remains largely urban and is concentrated in the East; only a small minority of rural households and of rural migrants living in urban areas is middle class. We use simulations to investigate whether the growth of China’s middle class reflects across-the-board income growth versus a redistribution of income to the middle, and to project growth in the size of the middle class to 2020. If all household incomes grow uniformly by 6.5 percent per annum to 2020, then China’s middle class will almost double in size and in 2020 a majority of urban residents, but only 13 percent of rural residents, will be classified as middle class. We examine the characteristics of China’s middle class and find it to be distinctive in terms of its sources of income, location of residence, savings and consumption patterns, education, and Communist Party membership.
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| 3. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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China's Emerging Global Middle Class
- 2020
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Ingår i: Changing Trends in China's Inequality; Evidence, Analysis and Prospects. - Oxford : Oxford University Press. - 9780190077938 ; , s. 75-108
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This chapter seeks to throw new light on the emergence of the Chinese economic middle class using data from the China Household Income Project from 2002, 2007, and 2013. We find that between 2002 and 2013 China’s income distribution was transformed from a pyramid shape, with a majority having rather low income, to a more olive shape, as the middle class emerged. Defining “middle class” as having an income high enough not to be regarded as poor but also low enough not to be regarded as rich if living in a high-income country, we find that the share of China’s population that was middle class was extremely small in 2002, larger but still less than 10 percent in 2007, but it expanded rapidly from 2007 to 2013 to become one-fifth of China’s population, equivalent to roughly 250 million people. China’s middle class remains largely urban and is concentrated in the East; only a small minority of rural households and of rural migrants living in urban areas is middle class. We use simulations to investigate whether the growth of China’s middle class reflects across-the-board income growth versus a redistribution of income to the middle, and to project growth in the size of the middle class to 2020. If all household incomes grow uniformly by 6.5 percent per annum to 2020, then China’s middle class will almost double in size and in 2020 a majority of urban residents, but only 13 percent of rural residents, will be classified as middle class. We examine the characteristics of China’s middle class and find it to be distinctive in terms of its sources of income, location of residence, savings and consumption patterns, education, and Communist Party membership.
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| 4. |
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| 5. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Income Inequality and Spatial Differences in China
- 2020
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Ingår i: Research on China’s Income Distribution and Labor Market (Vol.1, Ch.17). - Beijing, P R China : China Human Resources & Social Security Publishing Group Co., Ltd. - 9787516743171 ; , s. 405-431
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)
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| 6. |
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| 7. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Inequality and Public Policyin China: Issues and Trends
- 2008
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Ingår i: Inequality and Public Policy in China. Editors: Björn Gustafsson, Li Shi and Terry Sicular. - 9780521870450 ; , s. 1-34
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)
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| 8. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Kinas framväxande globala medelklass
- 2019
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Ingår i: Ekonomisk Debatt. - 0345-2646. ; 47:6, s. 31-42
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Tidskriftsartikel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Kinas inkomstfördelning har förändrats från formen av en pyramid med många låginkomsttagare till att mer anta formen av en oliv genom att en medelklass vuxit fram. Vi definierar ”medelklass” som att ha en inkomst tillräckligt hög för att inte betraktas som fattig men heller inte rik om personen hade levt i ett höginkomstland. Mycket få personer i Kina var medelklass 2002, men antalet hade ökat till 250 miljoner år 2013, vilket motsvarar en femtedel av landets befolkning. Vi prognostiserar att medelklassen kommer att nästan ha fördubblats år 2020. Därtill undersöker vi vad som karaktäriserar medelklassen och finner många distinkta drag.
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| 9. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Kinas medelklass har i stor utsträckning vuxit upp i städerna och får sina inkomster genom lönearbete
- 2020
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Ingår i: Ekonomisk Debatt. - 0345-2646. ; 48:1, s. 53-55
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Tidskriftsartikel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Genom sin storlek har den kinesiska ekonomins mycket snabba tillväxt högst betydande konsekvenser utanför landets gränser. Det handlar inte bara om strikt ekonomisk påverkan. Därför är det inte förvånande att det i Kinas omvärld pågår diskussioner om hur den kinesiska utmaningen bäst bör mötas. Hur har Kinas medelklass rekryterats? Hur är medelklasshushållens inkomster sammansatta?
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| 10. |
- Gustafsson, Björn, 1948, et al.
(författare)
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Polarisering i Mitttens rike - Standardhöjning, ekonomiska klyftor och fattigdom i Kina
- 2007
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Ingår i: Ekonomisk Debatt. - 0345-2646. ; 35:7, s. 56-67
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Tidskriftsartikel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Kinas ekonomi fortsätter att växa i mycket hög takt och landet har urbaniserats fort. Många hushåll kan åtnjuta en högre konsumtion än tidigare. Samtidigt finne en allmän föreställnng om att tillväxtens frukter inte är jämnt eller rättvist fördelade och att nya försörjningsrisker har upstått. Fördelningsfrågor har kommit att bli heta frågor bland allmänhet, bedömmare och styrande politiker. I denna uppsats presenteras ny forskningsom kasterljus över problematiken.
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| 11. |
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| 12. |
- Jin, Song, et al.
(författare)
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China's urban gender wage gap: A new direction?
- 2020
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Ingår i: Research on China’s Income Distribution and Labor Market (Vol.4, Ch.14). - Beijing, P.R. China : China Human Resources & Social Security Publishing Group Co., Ltd. - 9787516743201 ; , s. 343-386
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)
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| 13. |
- Li, Shi, et al.
(författare)
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Introduction
- 2008
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Ingår i: Research on Income Distribution in China III. - 9787303091089 ; , s. 1-33
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)
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| 14. |
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| 15. |
- Shi, Li, et al.
(författare)
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Changes and causes of income gap
- 2020
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Ingår i: Research on China’s Income Distribution and Labor Market (Vol.2, Ch.16). - Beijing, P.R. China : China Human Resources & Social Security Publishing Group Co., Ltd. - 9787516743188 ; , s. 367-399
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)
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| 16. |
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| 17. |
- Sicular, Terry, et al.
(författare)
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How Large is China's Rural-Urban Income Gap?
- 2010
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Ingår i: One Country, Two Societies. Rural-Urban Inequality in Contemporary China. - 9780674036321
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Bokkapitel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)
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| 18. |
- Sicular, Terry, et al.
(författare)
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The Rise of China’s Global Middle Class in an International Context
- 2022
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Ingår i: China & World Economy. - : Wiley. - 1671-2234 .- 1749-124X. ; 30:1, s. 5-27
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- We estimate the size of the global middle class in China and 33 other countries and analyze China’s expanding middle class in an international context. The “global middle class” is defi ned in terms of being neither poor nor rich in the developed world. China’s global middle class has grown rapidly and has been catching up with the middle class in developed countries. By 2018 China’s global middle class constituted 25 percent of China’s population; in absolute size it was nearly double the size of the global middle class in the US and was similar in size to that of Europe. Cross-country analysis of the relationship between the middle-class share of the total population and GDP per capita reveals an inverted-U pattern. China is not an outlier from the cross-country pattern but the speed with which its middle-class has expanded is unusual. The only other countries with similarly large, rapid expansions of the middle class are transition economies.
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| 19. |
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| 20. |
- Sicular, Terry, et al.
(författare)
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The Urban-Rural Income Gap and Inequality in China
- 2007
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Ingår i: Review of Income and Wealth. - 1475-4991. ; 53:1, s. 93-126
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Using new and rich data for 1995 and 2002, this study investigates the size of China’s urban-rural income gap, the contribution of that gap to overall inequality in China, and the factors underlying the gap. The analysis improves on past estimates by adjusting for spatial price differences and including migrants. Methods employed include inequality decomposition by population subgroup and the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method. Several key findings emerge. First, most estimates of China’s urban-rural income gap and its contribution to overall inequality may be substantially overstated. Second, the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition reveals that after controlling for household and individual characteristics, location of residence remains the most important factor underlying the urban-rural income gap. The only household characteristic that contributes substantially to the gap is education. Differences in the endowments of, and returns to, other household characteristics such as family size and composition, landholdings, and Party membership are relatively unimportant.
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| 21. |
- Sicular, Terry, et al.
(författare)
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The urban-rural income gap in China
- 2020
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Ingår i: Research on China’s Income Distribution and Labor Market (Vol.1, Ch.12). - Beijing, PR China : China Human Resources & Social Security Publishing Group Co., Ltd. - 9787516743171 ; , s. 291-330
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)
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| 22. |
- Song, Jin, et al.
(författare)
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China's Urban Gender Wage Gap: A New Direction?
- 2017
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Ingår i: The Latest Changes of Income Distribution Pattern in China - A study on the income distribution of Chinese residents (V). - Beijing, Kina : China Financial & Economic Publishing House. - 9787509578971 ; , s. 285-326
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Using data from the urban household surveys of the China Household Income Project for the years 1995, 2002, 2007 and 2013, we provide consistent estimates of the gender wage gap in urban China and investigate those factors that have contributed to this gap. Similar to past studies, we find a substantial and progressive widening of the gap from 1995 to 2007. Based on new data for 2013, however, we find that from 2007 to 2013 the gender wage gap narrowed. For 2013 we estimate the gender wage gap at between 19 percent and 25 percent. Oaxaca- Blinder decompositions reveal that the contributions of the differences in characteristics between women and men to the wage gap declined over time, and by 2013 the gap is largely unexplained. We identify key factors underlying the gender wage gap in recent years, specifically, individual characteristics, such as age, education, marriage, and children, as well as employment sector and occupation
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| 23. |
- Song, Jin, et al.
(författare)
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China's Urban Gender Wage Gap: A New Direction?
- 2020
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Ingår i: Changing Trends in China's Inequality: Evidence, Analysis and Prospects. - Oxford : Oxford University Press. - 9780190077938 ; , s. 321-358
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Using data from the urban household surveys of the China Household Income Project for the years 1995, 2002, 2007 and 2013, we provide consistent estimates of the gender wage gap in urban China and investigate those factors that have contributed to this gap. Similar to past studies, we find a substantial and progressive widening of the gap from 1995 to 2007. Based on new data for 2013, however, we find that from 2007 to 2013 the gender wage gap narrowed. For 2013 we estimate the gender wage gap at between 19 percent and 25 percent. Oaxaca-Blinder decompositions reveal that the contributions of the differences in characteristics between women and men to the wage gap declined over time, and by 2013 the gap is largely unexplained. We identify key factors underlying the gender wage gap in recent years, specifically, individual characteristics, such as age, education, marriage, and children, as well as employment sector and occupation.
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| 24. |
- Ximing, Yue, et al.
(författare)
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Explaining Incomes and Inequality in China
- 2020
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Ingår i: Research on China’s Income Distribution and Labor Market (Vol.2, Ch.9). - Beijing, P.R. China : 9787516743188. - 9787516743188 ; , s. 205-232
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Bokkapitel (refereegranskat)
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| 25. |
- Yang, Xiuna, et al.
(författare)
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China’s Prosperous Middle Class and Consumption-led Economic Growth: Lessons from Household Survey Data
- 2024
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Ingår i: The China Quarterly. - 0305-7410 .- 1468-2648. ; 258:258, s. 479-494
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Can the expansion of a prosperous middle class help China to rebalance to consumption-led growth? We address this question through analysis of macro- and micro-level data. Using macro statistics, we examine trends in national aggregate consumption and GDP growth from 2000 through 2019. We observe growth in aggregate consumption but do not find convincing evidence of consumption-led growth. Using microlevel household survey data from 2002, 2007, 2013 and 2018, we estimate the size of China’s prosperous middle class and its contribution to aggregate consumption growth. We find that the prosperous middle class expanded rapidly but contributed less to aggregate consumption growth than expected. We discuss features of this class that diminished its contribution to consumption-led growth, including its low propensity to consume out of income and its limited expansion beyond urban subgroups. We conclude that the expansion of the prosperous middle class is necessary but not sufficient to bring about rebalancing.
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| 26. |
- Yang, Xiyuna, et al.
(författare)
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Inequality of Opportunity in Household Income, China 2002-2018
- 2021
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Ingår i: China economic review. - : Elsevier BV. - 1043-951X. ; 69
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This study contributes to the literature on inequality of opportunity (IOp) in China by covering a longer and more recent span of time, employing better measures of given characteristics, and analyzing IOp for household income per capita with comparisons to individual income. Furthermore, it analyzes how IOp differs between the rural- and urban-born, and how IOp changes across birth cohorts and with age. We use 2002, 2013 and 2018 data from the Chinese Household Income Study and focus on income inequality among working-age persons. We find that IOp in China declined, especially between 2013 and 2018. In 2002 the large contributors to IOp were region, hukou type at birth, and parents’ characteristics. In 2018 the contributions of region, hukou type at birth and parents’ occupation had decreased, but that of parents’ education had increased. We find that IOp is larger among those born in rural than urban China. Further-more, IOP’s contribution to total inequality within each birth cohort is highest earlier in in-dividuals’ work lives and declines with age. IOp is higher for older than younger birth cohorts, reflecting that younger cohorts have benefited from increased opportunities associated with China’s reforms and opening up.
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| 27. |
- Yang, Xiuan, et al.
(författare)
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The Size and Growthpath of Chinese Middle-Income Group under the Standards of Developed Countires
- 2023
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Ingår i: Economic Theory and Business Management. - 1000-596X. ; 43:7, s. 60-73
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Enlarging the size of middle-income group is the proper meaning of promoting common prosperity. This paper uses 60% and 200% of the median income of 28 EU countries as the lower and upper cutoffs to define Chinese middle-income group and analyzes its size and growth path from an international perspective. The results show that the size of middle-income group in China has grown rapidly，from less than 1% in 2002 to 247% in 2018，and its number is similar to the total number of middleincome group in 28 EU countries and similar to the total population of the United States in that year In the past 20 years，among several major middleincome countries，only the size of middleincome group in China has maintained rapid growth Compared with developed countries，the proportion of middle-income group in China is still low，and it is still in the climbing stage of “GDP per capita” and “the proportion of middle-income group” The birth background beyond personal control，such as Hukou type，parents employment and education level，and place of birth，has a significant impact on a person's probability of being middle-income group In the future，we should pay special attention to those who are born in disadvantaged backgrounds and provide them with smooth channels to enter the middle-income group.
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