| 1. |
- Chihaya Da Silva, Guilherme Kenjy, et al.
(author)
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Trajectories of Spatial Assimilation or Place Stratification? : A Typology of Residence and Workplace Histories of Newly Arrived Migrants in Sweden
- 2022
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In: The international migration review. - : Sage Publications. - 0197-9183 .- 1747-7379. ; 56:2, s. 433-462
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- In most societies, resources and opportunities are concentrated in neighbor-hoods and workplaces occupied by the host population. The spatial assimilationand place stratification theories propose trajectories (the sequences of events)leading to minority and migrant access to or exclusion from these advantageousplaces. However, most previous research on these theories did not ask whethersuch theorized trajectories occur. We apply sequence analysis to decade-long res-idence and workplace histories of newly arrived migrants in Sweden to identify atypology of combined residence-work trajectories. The seven types of trajecto-ries in our typology are characterized by varying degrees of proximity to thehost population in residential neighborhoods and workplaces and by different pat-terns of change in such proximity over time. The pivotal role of socioeconomicgains in spatial assimilation, posited by the namesake theory, is not supported, aswe do not find that migrant employment precedes residence alongside the hostpopulation. The importance of housing-market discrimination for migrants’exclusion from host-dominated spaces, posited by place stratification theory, isonly weakly supported, as we find that migrants from less affluent countries accu-mulate disadvantage over time, likely due to discrimination in both the labor andhousing markets. Our findings also underscore the need for new theories explain-ing migrant residential outcomes which apply to contexts where migrant-denseneighborhoods are still forming.
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| 2. |
- Esperk, Toomas, et al.
(author)
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Achieving high sexual dimorphism : insects add instars
- 2007
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In: Ecological Entomology. ; 32, s. 243-256
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- 1. In arthropods, the evolution of sexual size dimorphism (SSD) may be constrained by a physiological limit on growth within each particular larval instar. A high SSD could, however, be attained if the larvae of the larger sex pass through a higher number of larval instars.2. Based on a survey of published case studies, the present review shows that sex-related difference in the number of instars is a widespread phenomenon among insects. In the great majority of species with a sexually dimorphic instar number, females develop through a higher number of instars than males.3. Female-biased sexual dimorphism in final sizes in species with sexually dimorphic instar number was found to considerably exceed a previously estimated median value of SSD for insects in general. This suggests a causal connection between high female-biased SSD, and additional instars in females. Adding an extra instar to larval development allows an insect to increase its adult size at the expense of prolonged larval development.4. As in the case of additional instars, SSD is fully formed late in ontogeny, larval growth schedules and imaginal sizes can be optimised independently. No conflict between selective pressures operating in juvenile and adult stages is therefore expected.5. In most species considered, the number of instars also varied within the sexes. Phenotypic plasticity in instar number may thus be a precondition for a sexual difference in instar number to evolve.
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| 3. |
- Esperk, Toomas, et al.
(author)
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Distinguishing between anticipatory and responsive plasticity in a seasonally polyphenic butterfly
- 2013
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In: Evolutionary Ecology. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0269-7653 .- 1573-8477. ; 27:2, s. 315-332
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Seasonal generations of short-lived organisms often differ in their morphological, behavioural and life history traits, including body size. These differences may be either due to immediate effects of seasonally variable environment on organisms (responsive plasticity) or rely on presumably adaptive responses of organisms to cues signalizing forthcoming seasonal changes (anticipatory plasticity). When directly developing individuals of insects are larger than their overwintering conspecifics, the between-generation differences are typically ascribed to responsive plasticity in larval growth. We tested this hypothesis using the papilionid butterly Iphiclides podalirius as a model species. In laboratory experiments, we demonstrated that seasonal differences in food quality could not explain the observed size difference. Similarly, the size differences are not likely to be explained by the immediate effects of ambient temperature and photoperiod on larval growth. The qualitative pattern of natural size differences between the directly developing and diapausing butterflies could be reproduced in the laboratory as a response to photoperiod, indicating anticipatory character of the response. Directly developing and diapausing individuals followed an identical growth trajectory until the end of the last larval instar, with size differences appearing just a few days before pupation. Taken together, various lines of evidence suggest that between-generation size differences in I. podalirius are not caused by immediate effects of environmental factors on larval growth. Instead, these differences rather represent anticipatory plasticity and are thus likely to have an adaptive explanation. It remains currently unclear, whether the seasonal differences in adult size per se are adaptive, or if they constitute co-product of processes related to the diapause. Our study shows that it may be feasible to distinguish between different types of plasticity on the basis of empirical data even if fitness cannot be directly measured, and contributes to the emerging view about the predominantly adaptive nature of seasonal polyphenisms in insects.
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| 4. |
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| 5. |
- Gentile, Michael, et al.
(author)
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Housing and ethnicity in the post-Soviet City : Ust'-Kamenogorsk, Kazakhstan
- 2006
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In: Urban Studies. - : SAGE Publications. - 0042-0980 .- 1360-063X. ; 43:10, s. 1757-1778
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Despite egalitarian aims, considerable social and ethnic segregation existed in countries with central planning. To date, however, research on residential segregation in the former state socialist countries of east central Europe and the former Soviet Union has been limited and has focused mainly on major metropolitan or capital-city areas and on social segregation. The aim of this study is to analyse ethnic post-Soviet segregation in housing in the medium-sized industrial city of Ust'-Kamenogorsk, Kazakhstan. The paper uses data from the sample survey Cities of the Rudnyi Altay, and linear and logistic regression to analyse segregation by dwelling type, housing size and facilities between Kazakhs, Russians and other ethnic groups. The study reveals that the housing conditions of Kazakhs are considerably worse than those of both Russians and other ethnic groups.
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| 6. |
- Hedberg, Charlotta, et al.
(author)
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'Neighbourhood Effects' and 'City Effects' : Immigrants' Transition to Employment in Swedish Large City-Regions
- 2010
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- An important debate in current research and policy focuses on the role of spatial characteristics and urban residential segregation on the social mobility of immigrants. Much focus has been on ‘neighbourhood effects’, and on how internal spatial variations within the city affects the life careers of immigrants. We add the analysis of variations of labour market incorporation between cities to this discussion, thus following the recent interest of migration scholars on the role of the individual city on immigrants’ labour market performance in the host country. Accordingly, in this study, we analyse the labour market careers of one migrant cohort to Sweden from an urban perspective, where the analysis of ‘neighbourhood effects’ and ‘city effects’ are studied jointly. We use a longitudinal data base derived from Swedish population registers and discrete-time event history analysis with the aim to study immigrant transition to employment in a ten-year period after arrival, and to investigate the correlation between occupational and residential careers. The results show that the migrants’ labour market participation increases slowly over time, and there are large variations between immigrant groups. Migrant origin, gender and education are crucial factors in getting the first job. Both ’neighbourhood effects’ and ‘city effects’ were significant, but the former decreased over time. Accordingly, there was no sign of a ‘downward spiral’ from residing in distressed neighbourhoods. Instead there was a robust ‘city effect’, which we interpret as being influenced by the role of the individual city in the global economy and the city’s local labour market structure.
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| 7. |
- Hedberg, Charlotta, et al.
(author)
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'Neighbourhood Effects' and 'City Effects' : The Entry of Newly Arrived Immigrants into the Labour Market
- 2013
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In: Urban Studies. - London : SAGE Publications. - 0042-0980 .- 1360-063X. ; 50:6, s. 1165-1182
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- An important debate in current research and policy focuses on the role of urban residential segregation on the social mobility of immigrants. Much focus has been on 'neighbourhood effects' and on how spatial variations within the city affect individual careers. This paper adds the analysis of variations of labour market incorporation between cities. The labour market careers of one migrant cohort to Sweden are analysed, where the analysis of 'neighbourhood effects' and 'city effects' are studied jointly, using a longitudinal database and discrete-time event history analysis. The results show that labour market participation increases slowly over time and there are large variations due to migrant origin, gender and education. Both 'neighbourhood effects' and 'city effects' were significant, but whereas the former decreased over time, the 'city effect' was robust. Accordingly, contextual aspects of the individual city need to be included in the analysis of neighbourhood effects.
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| 8. |
- Kährik, Anneli, et al.
(author)
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Patterns and Drivers of Inner City Social Differentiation in Prague and Tallinn
- 2015
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In: GEOGRAFIE. - 1212-0014. ; 120:2, s. 275-295
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- During the socialist era, inner residential areas of Eastern European cities were left to decay both physically and socially, and became mostly occupied by elderly inhabitants. Drawing on 2007-2011 EU-SILC data, we have analysed processes of socio-spatial differentiation in the inner cities of Prague and Tallinn during the post-socialist era, and indicate the household-level drivers of such differentiation. We found a high preference for inner city living among young people and childless households, but also the persisting patterns of elderly population in some inner city sub-areas. A weak correlation between household socio-economic status and place of residence in the inner city, however, suggests that inner cities continued to be socially mixed in the late 2000s, although differences existed in this regard between sub-areas and between the two studied cities. To a large extent, such differentiation relates to the roots found within socialist and pre-socialist legacies, but it also contains new post-socialist features, such as those created by different social and housing policies applied during the post-socialist reforms.
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| 9. |
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| 10. |
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| 11. |
- Marcińczak, Szymon, et al.
(author)
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A comparative study of immigrant-native segregation at multiple spatial scales in urban Europe
- 2023
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In: Journal of ethnic and migration studies. - : Routledge. - 1369-183X .- 1469-9451. ; 49:1, s. 43-65
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- There has been a strong degree of interest over the last 30 years towards immigrant segregation in Europe. This paper aims to contribute towards the existing body of research by extending the multi-scalar analysis of patterns of immigrant residential segregation into a coherent international comparative study of cities of different sizes. We investigate the patterns of immigrant-native segregation at different geographical scales, along with their correlates, in more than a hundred cities in 2011 across Germany, Spain, Sweden, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Our findings suggest that cities in the UK are the most highly segregated in Europe. The positions of the other countries in the ‘European segregation ranking’ depend upon the considered immigrant group and spatial scale. The national context is consistently the most important factor in understanding segregation at multiple spatial scales. However, even while taking into account the national contexts, the structural-ecological factors remain important predictors of segregation patterns in Europe.
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| 12. |
- Marcinczak, Szymon, et al.
(author)
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Change or continuity? : Evolution of residential and workplace segregation in the Stockholm metropolitan region
- 2011
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Conference paper (other academic/artistic)abstract
- The origins of immigrants coming to Sweden as well as their lifestyles and labour market skills have changed substantially since the early 1990s. The last decades have also resulted in a gradual transition of the Swedish economy from industrial to more service oriented (activities relatedto ‘the new economy’). These two processes inevitably contributed to the pace of segregation in major urban regions of Sweden, regions that have been at the forefront of economic change and that have remained the main destination of many immigrants. So far, the majority of studies on segregation in Sweden have been limited to research the residential dimension only. Yet, it should be emphasised that cities contain clusters of jobs and people and that these clusters together form the socio-economic fabric of urban regions. This paper thus adopts a dynamic approach to exa- mine the evolution of residential and workplace segregation in the ethnically diverse Stockholm Metropolitan Region. Referring to the recent advancements in segregation studies we define the phenomenon of segregation as both process and pattern, and scrutinize them respectively.
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| 13. |
- Marcinczak, Szymon, et al.
(author)
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Changing patterns of residential and workplace segregation in the Stockholm metropolitan area
- 2015
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In: Urban geography. - : Taylor & Francis. - 0272-3638 .- 1938-2847. ; 36:7, s. 969-992
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Immigrant–native segregation is present in the spaces in which individuals from different ethnic/racial groups practice their everyday lives; interact with others and develop their ethnic, social and spatial networks. The overwhelming majority of academic research on immigrant segregation has focused on the residential domain, thus largely overlooking other arenas of daily interaction. The present study contributes to the emerging literature on immigrant residential and workplace segregation by examining changes in patterns of residential and workplace segregation over time. We draw our data from the Stockholm metropolitan region, Sweden’s main port of entry for immigrants. The results suggest a close association between residential and workplace segregation. Immigrant groups that are more segregated at home are also more segregated in workplace neighborhoods. More importantly, we found that a changing segregation level in one domain tends to involve a similar trend in the other domain.
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| 14. |
- Olofsson, Jenny, 1978-
(author)
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Go West : East European migrants in Sweden
- 2012
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Doctoral thesis (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Many people have migrated between East and West Europe in recent decades. The daily life of these migrants is crucial not only for the migrants themselves but also for the development of future migration. The aim of this thesis is to explore the interaction between migration motives, integration, social networks and migration, and how this affects international migration processes in general. This is done using migration between Sweden on the one hand and Russia, Poland and the Baltic States on the other as a case study.The thesis consists of three empirical studies which derive from different sources of data: the first (Paper I) draws on individual Swedish register data while the second and third are based upon a questionnaire survey. Paper I explores aspects of transnational social spaces in the context of migration from the non-Baltic former Soviet republics to Sweden before and after the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989. The results of this paper show rather limited migration and a lack of a more developed transnational social space. This is partly due to weak integration on the labour market, a high degree of intermarriage, no existing migrant community and limited return migration. The following two papers (II, III) focus on migrants from Russia, Poland and the Baltic States to Sweden after 1990. Paper II analyses migration motives and the outcome of the migration decision, and reveals significant gender differences in the motives for migrating and in how men and women adapt in their new country of living. While men mainly came for economic reasons, the majority of women came for intermarriage in Sweden; however, the migration motives have changed over time towards more economic ones. The final paper (III) shows significant gender differences in the migrants’ perceived sense of belonging in Sweden. Women report a stronger sense of belonging than their male counterparts, and while men’s sense of belonging is mainly affected by duration of stay in Sweden, language proficiency and citizenship, women’s sense of belonging is shown to be mostly affected by local social networks. In sum, the results in this thesis show that migration systems and transnational social spaces between Sweden and the respective countries have not yet emerged. This is partly due to the specific migrant composition and integration that characterize this migration process. The immigrants mainly function as weak bridgeheads, and do not facilitate the development of any further migration. However, with a changing migration flow, including migrants with different motives and migration agendas, future migrants can be stronger bridgeheads and facilitate further development of migration systems and transnational social spaces.
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| 15. |
- Strömgren, Magnus, et al.
(author)
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Factors shaping workplace segregation between natives and immigrants
- 2014
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In: Demography. - : Springer. - 0070-3370 .- 1533-7790. ; 51:2, s. 645-671
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Research on segregation of immigrant groups is increasingly turning its attention from residential areas toward other important places, such as the workplace, where immigrants can meet and interact with members of the native population. This article examines workplace segregation of immigrants. We use longitudinal, georeferenced Swedish population register data, which enables us to observe all immigrants in Sweden for the period 1990–2005 on an annual basis. We compare estimates from ordinary least squares with fixed-effects regressions to quantify the extent of immigrants' self-selection into specific workplaces, neighborhoods, and partnerships, which may bias more naïve ordinary least squares results. In line with previous research, we find lower levels of workplace segregation than residential segregation. The main finding is that low levels of residential segregation reduce workplace segregation, even after we take into account intermarriage with natives as well as unobserved characteristics of immigrants such as willingness and ability to integrate into the host society. Being intermarried with a native reduces workplace segregation for immigrant men but not for immigrant women.
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| 16. |
- Strömgren, Magnus, 1973-, et al.
(author)
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Pre-hire factors and workplace ethnic segregation
- 2011
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Reports (other academic/artistic)abstract
- In addition to neighbourhoods of residence, family and places of work play important roles in producing and reproducing ethnic segregation. Therefore, recent research on ethnic segregation and contact is increasingly turning its attention from residential areas towards other important domains of daily interethnic contact. The key innovation of this paper is to clarify the role of immigrants' pre-hire exposure to natives in the residence, workplace and family domains in immigrant exposure to natives in their current workplace. The study is based on Swedish population register data. The results show that at the macro level, workplace neighbourhood segregation is lower than residential neighbourhood segregation. Our micro-level analysis further shows that high levels of residential exposure of immigrants to natives help to reduce ethnic segregation at the level of workplace establishments as well.
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| 17. |
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| 18. |
- Tammaru, Tiit, et al.
(author)
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Learning through contact? : The effects on earnings of immigrant exposure to native population
- 2011
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Conference paper (other academic/artistic)abstract
- Factors influencing immigrant labour market outcomes have received increased scholarly atten- tion lately. A recent research focus has been the effects of residential setting on labour market outcomes. This study brings a new dimension to this emerging body of research, introducing the role played by workplace composition, in addition to place of residence, in immigrant earnings. Based on Swedish longitudinal register data, OLS regression is used to examine effects of previous exposure to natives on earnings in three immigrant cohorts (1990, 1995 and 2000) five years after arrival. Besides controlling for individual characteristics and various labour market attributes, a two-step Heckman correction procedure is applied to take into account the selectivity of entering the Swedish labour market. The main finding of the study is that exposure to the native population at the workplace is more important than residential exposure for predicting immigrant earnings.
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| 19. |
- Tammaru, Tiit, et al.
(author)
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Learning through contact? : The effects on earnings of immigrant exposure to the native population
- 2010
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In: Environment and planning A. - : SAGE Publications. - 0308-518X .- 1472-3409. ; 42:12, s. 2938-2955
-
Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Factors influencing immigrant labour-market outcomes have received increased scholarly attention lately. A recent research focus has been the effects of residential setting on labour market outcomes. This study brings a new dimension to this emerging body of research, introducing the role played by workplace composition, in addition to place of residence, in immigrant earnings. Based on Swedish longitudinal register data, OLS regression is used to examine effects of previous exposure to natives on earnings in three immigrant cohorts (1990, 1995 and 2000) five years after arrival. Besides controlling for individual characteristics and various labour-market attributes, a two-step Heckman correction procedure is applied to take into account the selectivity of entering the Swedish labour market. The main finding of the study is that exposure to the native population at the workplace is more important than residential exposure for predicting immigrant earnings.
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| 20. |
- Tammaru, Tiit, et al.
(author)
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On the move: explaining migration patterns in Estonia during the transition period
- 1999
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In: International Journal of Population Geography. - : John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. - 1099-1220 .- 1077-3495. ; 5:4, s. 241-260
-
Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Contrary to the indications of official statistics, recent research suggests that internal migration in Estonia may in fact be predominantly urban-bound. Applying a loosely structurationist approach to analyse sample survey data collected in 1997, this paper attempts to explore why urban areas are attractive as a destination, and why many migrants moving to urban areas, unlike those leaving for the countryside, fail to register. Differential urban-rural and regional development are the important factors helping to explain the nature and direction of migratory flows in Estonia during the transition period, while the (partial) removal of constraints operating in urban housing markets facilitates the decision to move. As for non-registration of residential relocation, the practice is mostly associated with migrants aged 35 or below. This is a group that, for a variety of reasons, has a rather special standing with respect to access to, and ownership of, residential property. This paper attempts to explore the migration patterns during the transition period in Estonia. A structuration approach was used to analyze data from the Estonian Statistical Office collected in 1997. Findings show that for migration between urban and rural areas, work-related reasons have been the most important motivating factor in urban growth during the transition period. Also considered are the family and education. In relation to sociodemographic structure of the population, men cite work, while women count family-related reasons, as the main motive for migrating. As to nonregistration, the most significant reason relates to issues of ownership. Because migrants are living in rented housing, it is not possible for them to register even if they desire to do so. Other reasons include "temporary", associated with study and work; "juridical", bureaucratic matters; and "multiple places of residence". This analysis, however, is incomplete because the attitudes and patterns of behavior have only partially or perfunctorily been related to the dramatic changes that have occurred in Estonian society. Proper statistical data are needed to help examine trends at a more disaggregated spatial level.
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| 21. |
- Tammaru, Tiit, et al.
(author)
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Relations between residential and workplace segregation among newly arrived immigrant men and women
- 2016
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In: Cities. - : Elsevier BV. - 0264-2751 .- 1873-6084. ; 59, s. 131-138
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Contemporary cities are becoming more and more diverse in population as a result of immigration. Research shows that while residential neighborhoods are becoming ethnically more diverse within cities, residential segregation from natives has overall remained persistently high. High levels of segregation are often seen as negative, preventing the integration of immigrants into their host society and having a negative impact on people's lives. Where as most studies of segregation deal with residential neighborhoods, this paper investigates segregation at workplaces for newly arrived immigrant men and women from the Global South to Sweden. By using the domain approach, we focus on the relationship between workplace segregation, residential segregation, and the ethnic composition of households. Using longitudinal register data from Sweden, we find that residential segregation is much weaker related to workplace segregation than revealed by studies using cross-sectional data. Furthermore, the residential context is not an important factor in explaining workplace segregation for immigrant men. The most important factors shaping workplace segregation pertain to economic sector and city size.
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| 22. |
- Tammaru, Tiit, et al.
(author)
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The Ethnic Dimensions ofSuburbanisation in Estonia
- 2013
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In: Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. - : Routledge. ; 39:5, s. 845-862
-
Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- Large-scale suburbanisation is a relatively recent phenomenon in East Central Europeand is responsible for major socio-spatial changes in metropolitan areas. Little is knownabout the ethnic dimensions of suburbanisation, despite the existence of often sizeableRussian minority populations in some member-states of the former Soviet Union.We use individual-level Estonian census data from the year 2000 in order to investigatethe ethnic dimensions of suburbanisation. The results show that ethnic minorities have aconsiderably lower probability of suburbanising compared to the majority population,and minorities are less likely to move to rural municipalities*the main sites of suburbanchange*in the suburban ring of cities.
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| 23. |
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| 24. |
- Tammaru, Tiit, et al.
(author)
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Transitional statistics: Internal migration and urban growth in post-Soviet Estonia
- 1999
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In: Europe-Asia Studies. - : Taylor & Francis Ltd. - 1465-3427 .- 0966-8136. ; 51:5, s. 821-842
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- To illustrate our point, we here report the results of a study of migration patterns in one of the successor states, Estonia. We do so with a view to identifying the consequences of a change in reporting regulations and practices. To this end a survey of individual migration histories was conducted in 1997. This exercise, to the extent that it yielded a more reliable set of data than that which official statistics afford, indicates that post-Soviet migration data are little better than their Soviet-era predecessors: different but still deficient. The contrasts between our survey returns and officially reported statistics are outlined, as are the sources of divergence. As our findings indicate that something very different from that suggested by the compilations of the Estonian Statistical Office (ESO) is indeed taking place, in the end our work may provide some inputs for a more thorough understanding of how migratory flows and urbanisation processes are transformed during the transition period itself. Standard models and theories of internal migration and urban growth in Estonia have been developed. However, there remained a lack of statistical wherewithal to conduct the required kind of analysis. For instance, certain categories of migration are likely to have been underreported and it is clear that existing rules and regulations on how to report those moves that were registered were not always observed. This could be attributed to the fact that existing statistics may fail to account for the process they purposely capture. To illustrate, the authors report the results of a study of migration patterns in post-Soviet Estonia with a view of identifying the consequences of a change in reporting regulations and practices. To this end, a survey of individual migration histories was conducted in 1997. Overall, findings suggest that post-Soviet migration data are slightly improved in comparison with their Soviet-era predecessors: different but still deficient. It turns out that net domestic migratory flows are the reverse of what official statistics on registered residents suggest. The contrasts between the survey returns and the officially reported statistics are outlined, including resources of divergence. As the findings indicate that something is distinct from that suggested by the compilations of the Estonian Statistical Office is indeed taking place, this study provide some inputs for a more thorough understanding of how migratory flows and urbanization processes are transformed during the transition period itself.
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| 25. |
- Temelova, Jana, et al.
(author)
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Neighbourhood Trajectories In The Inner Cities Of Prague And Tallinn : What Affects The Speed Of Social And Demographic Change?
- 2016
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In: Geografiska Annaler. Series B, Human Geography. - 0435-3684 .- 1468-0467. ; 98:4, s. 349-366
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Journal article (peer-reviewed)abstract
- This paper explores neighbourhood trajectories in the inner cities in terms of social and demographic change in a comparative perspective, and analyses the role of in situ change and residential mobility in this change. The research is based on a quantitative census-based study of Prague (the Czech Republic) and Tallinn (Estonia) at a detailed neighbourhood level. The study shows that in spite of many political and historical similarities, the differences in local regulatory mechanisms and local contexts have led to different urban outcomes. Institutional rigidity and long-term resistance to adjusting physical structures to a new social system have restrained change in Prague. The inner city of Tallinn has experienced much more social restructuring, replacements and displacements. High home-ownership rates, early rent de-regulation and no major public involvement in housing all contribute to the market-led urban change in Tallinn.
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