| 1. |
- Andersson, Karin, 1952, et al.
(författare)
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Pre-study on sustainability indices for shipping
- 2017
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Demands on reporting and communication of the sustainability performance within a company as well as externally and how the demands on continuous improvement are fulfilled, has led to a development and also standardisation of sustainability indicators and indices. In shipping, like in all sectors, numerous indices or reporting systems have been developed and are used for various purposes. The aim has often been for communication with cargo owners and passengers, but also to be used as a basis for economic incentives intended to decrease emissions in ports and fairways. With increased demands on aspects included, it is obvious that a future sustainability index for shipping needs to include social and economic aspects in addition to natural environment and resource use. The present report is a pre-study with a review on existing indices in the shipping sector, and an outlook to other areas, followed by a discussion on possible development paths of more comprehensive sustainability indices. The conclusions are: The available environmental indices for shipping are many and there are initiatives, like CSI, that cover many relevant aspects. However, the indices are not very developed what concerns working conditions or socioeconomic costs. Also, economic parameters describing the ship-owner as a company are not included. The scrapping process foreseen for a ship can be further developed and included in indices. For further development, the following is suggested: • Develop indicators that can be used for describing work environment with the goal of introduction into an index. • The development of socioeconomic cost assessments, for example in terms of ecosystem services, is interesting and could be included in indices in the future. It is recommended that this development is followed for future use. • At the moment, there is not an easy way to include the economic dimension in terms of economic stability of the company in an index, but this should be further investigated. • The possible use of MRV (Monitoring, Reporting, Verification) in indices should be evaluated.
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| 2. |
- Johansson, Lasse, et al.
(författare)
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Model for leisure boat activities and emissions – implementation for the Baltic Sea
- 2020
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Ingår i: Ocean Science. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1812-0792 .- 1812-0784. ; 16:5, s. 1143-1163
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The activities and emissions from leisure boats in the Baltic Sea have been modeled in a comprehensive approach for the first time, using a new simulation model leisure Boat Emissions and Activities siMulator (BEAM). The model utilizes survey data to characterize the national leisure boat fleets. Leisure boats have been categorized based on their size, use and engine specifications, and for these subcategories emission factors for NOx, PM2.5, CO, non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), and releases of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) from antifouling paints have been estimated according to literature values. The modeling approach also considers the temporal and spatial distribution of leisure boat activities, which are applied to each simulated leisure boat separately. According to our results the CO and NMVOC emissions from leisure boats, as well as Cu and Zn released from antifouling paints, are significant when compared against the emissions originating from registered commercial shipping in the Baltic Sea. CO emissions equal 70 % of the registered shipping emissions and NMVOC emissions equal 160 % when compared against the modeled results in the Baltic Sea in 2014. Modeled NOx and PM2.5 from the leisure boats are less significant compared to the registered shipping emissions. The emissions from leisure boats are concentrated in the summer months of June, July and August and are released in the vicinity of inhabited coastal areas. Given the large emission estimates for leisure boats, this commonly overlooked source of emissions should be further investigated in greater detail.
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| 3. |
- Johansson, L., et al.
(författare)
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Modeling of Leisure Craft Emissions
- 2020
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Ingår i: Springer Proceedings in Complexity. - Cham : Springer International Publishing. - 2213-8684 .- 2213-8692. ; , s. 205-210
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- Commercial shipping fleet and its emissions can be modeled in detail, but the emission from leisure craft are often invisible for activity based, bottom-up emission inventories. A new model (FMI-BEAM) describes the emissions from the leisure craft fleet in the Baltic Sea area, complementing the existing STEAM emission modeling suite. BEAM combines information from over 3000 boat marina locations, national small boat registries, Automatic Identification System data and boat survey results to derive leisure boat emissions for over 250,000 boats around the Baltic Sea coastline. The location of marinas and boat counts were determined from satellite images and other available data. With the BEAM leisure craft simulation model the spatial and temporal distribution of air emissions can be estimated. The presented results describe our first attempt to generate fuel consumption and emission inventory for small boats which have been underrepresented in current emission inventories. Small boat activity often occurs near the coastline in vicinity of populated areas and leisure craft emissions contribute to local air quality. The emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are high compared to the emissions of commercial shipping, because very high emission levels are allowed for old small boat engines according to current legislation. The approach described in this paper can be applied in larger scale, for example to cover European coastlines in the future.
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| 4. |
- Kukkonen, J., et al.
(författare)
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Towards a Comprehensive Evaluation of the Environmental and Health Impacts of Shipping Emissions
- 2022
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Ingår i: Springer Proceedings in Complexity. - Cham : Springer International Publishing. - 2213-8684 .- 2213-8692. ; , s. 329-336
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Konferensbidrag (refereegranskat)abstract
- We present a new concept for marine research, applied in the EU-funded project EMERGE, “Evaluation, control and Mitigation of the EnviRonmental impacts of shippinG Emissions” (2020–2024; https://emerge-h2020.eu/ ). For the first time, both the various marine and atmospheric impacts of the shipping sector have been and will be comprehensively analyzed, using a concerted modelling and measurements framework. The experimental part of the project focuses on five European geographical case studies in different ecologically vulnerable regions, and a mobile onboard case study. The EMERGE consortium has also developed a harmonised and integrated modelling framework to assess the combined impacts of shipping emissions, both (i) on the marine ecosystems and (ii) the atmospheric environment. The first results include substantial refinements of a range of models to be applied, especially those for the STEAM and OpenDrift models. In particular, the STEAM (Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model) model has been extended to allow for the effects of atmospheric and oceanographic factors on the fuel consumption and emissions of the ships. The OpenDrift model has been improved to take into account the partitioning, degradation, and volatilization of pollutants in water. The predicted emission and discharge values have been used as input for both regional scale atmospheric dispersion models, such as WRF-CMAQ (Weather Research and Forecasting—Community Multiscale Air Quality Model) and SILAM (System for Integrated modeLling of Atmospheric composition), and water quality and circulation models, such as OpenDrift (Open source model for the drifting of substances in the ocean) and Delft3D (oceanographic model). The case study regions are Eastern Mediterranean, Northern Adriatic Sea, the Lagoon of Aveiro, the Solent Strait and the Öresund Strait. We have also conducted a substantial part of the experimental campaigns scheduled in the project. The final assessment will include the benefits and costs of control and mitigation options affecting water quality, air pollution exposure, health impacts, climate forcing, and ecotoxicological effects and bioaccumulation of pollutants in marine biota.
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| 5. |
- Lunde Hermansson, Anna, 1987, et al.
(författare)
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Strong economic incentives of ship scrubbers promoting pollution
- 2024
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Ingår i: Nature Sustainability. - Göteborg : IVL Svenska Miljöinstitutet. - 2398-9629. ; 7:6, s. 812-822
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In response to stricter regulations on ship air emissions, many shipowners have installed exhaust gas cleaning systems, known as scrubbers, allowing for use of cheap residual heavy fuel oil. Scrubbers produce large volumes of acidic and polluted water that is discharged to the sea. Due to environmental concerns, the use of scrubbers is being discussed within the International Maritime Organization. Real-world simulations of global scrubber-vessel activity, applying actual fuel costs and expenses related to scrubber operations, show that 51% of the global scrubber-fitted fleet reached economic break even by the end of 2022, with a surplus of €4.7 billion in 2019 euros. Within five years after installation, more than 95% of the ships with the most common scrubber systems reach break even. However, the marine ecotoxicity damage cost, from scrubber water discharge in the Baltic Sea Area 2014–2022, amounts to >€680 million in 2019 euros, showing that private economic interests come at the expense of marine environmental damage.
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| 6. |
- Moldanova, Jana, et al.
(författare)
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Framework for the environmental impact assessment of operational shipping
- 2022
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Ingår i: Ambio. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0044-7447 .- 1654-7209. ; 51:3, s. 754-769
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Shipping is an important source of pollution affecting both atmospheric and aquatic environments. To allow for efficient mitigation of environmental degradation, it is essential to know the extent of the impacts of shipping in relation to other sources of pollution. Here, we give a perspective on a holistic approach to studies of the environmental impacts of operational shipping through presentation of an assessment framework developed and applied on a case of shipping in the Baltic Sea. Through transfer of knowledge and concepts, previously used in assessments of air pollution, now applied to assessments of marine pollution and underwater noise, the horizon of understanding of shipping-related impacts is significantly improved. It identifies the main areas of environmental degradation caused by shipping and potential improvements through legislation and technological development. However, as the vast majority of contaminants discharged into the sea are not routinely monitored and assessed, the links between pressure of contaminants from shipping and environmental state and impacts will not be caught in the current environmental regulatory frameworks.
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| 7. |
- Parsmo, Rasmus, et al.
(författare)
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Environmental discounts for Swedish ports and fairways: A ship owner perspective
- 2024
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Ingår i: Marine Policy. - Göteborg : IVL Svenska Miljöinstitutet. - 0308-597X .- 1872-9460. ; 159, s. 105950-105950
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Sweden has adopted environmental discounts for ships arriving at fairways and in some ports to encourage investment in measures to reduce shipping’s impact on climate change, air quality and marine environment. The present study investigates the impact of these discounts in 2020 on investment decisions made by ship-owners. As a starting point, this impact was assessed by comparing the potential annual benefits of the discounts with the annualized costs of retrofitting four selected abatement technologies.The results indicate that, while the port discounts are relatively small when compared to the costs of abatement, the fairway discounts could be significant for ships frequently calling at Swedish ports under specific conditions. However, we conclude that the discounts alone are insufficient to incentivize ship-owners to invest in abatement technologies for older ships. To improve the usefulness of these discounts, the design should incorporate a more precise internalization of abatement costs. This could be achieved by implementing individual discounts for different abatement strategies, establishing dedicated subsidies for high-cost innovative technologies, enhancing scoring systems, and by better matching the discount with other market-based policies internationally.
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| 8. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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EMERGE deliverable 6.1. Baltic and North Sea report
- 2023
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Shipping is responsible for a range of different pressures affecting air quality, climate, and the marine environment. However, most social and economic analysis of shipping have focused on air pollution assessment and how shipping may impact climate change and human health. This risks policies to be biased towards air pollution and climate change, while trading off impacts on the marine environment. One example is the IMO’s global sulphur cap, which requires shipowners to use a compliant fuel with a sulphur content of 0.5% (0.1% in SECA regions) or use alternative compliance options (scrubbers) that are effective in reducing sulphur oxide (SOX) emissions to the atmosphere. The scrubber process results in large volumes of acidic discharge water. Although regulations primarily target SOX removal, other pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and metals are transferred from the exhausts to the wash water and subsequently discharged to the marine environment. The aim of this deliverable has therefore been to develop a holistic framework to evaluate the impacts of shipping emissions, particularly those related to scrubbers, on the marine environment, human health, climate, and economy. The structure of this deliverable follows the well-established DAPSIR (Driver-Activity-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) framework, under which information, findings and conclusions from previous work packages are synthesized and integrated, including experiments of direct emissions from shipping to the marine environment (WP2) and the atmosphere (WP3), assessment of marine environmental impacts (WP2, WP4 and WP6), as well as human health and climate change impacts (WP5 and WP6). Finally, this deliverable provides recommendations and guidance for stakeholders and policymakers. The assessment is performed using a baseline scenario (year 2018) and three future scenarios (for year 2050) based on different projected future developments of shipping transport volumes and considering the development of ships regarding fuel efficiency and ship size. In this deliverable, we focused primarily on two of the different future scenarios, scenario 3 (high scrubber pressure) and scenario 8 (high use of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and methanol). The marine environmental risk assessment, performed in the Öresund region for the baseline scenario (2018), showed unacceptable risks when ships in the area were using open loop scrubbers. In the assessment, modelled predicted environmental concentrations (PECs) of open loop scrubber discharge water exceeded the tolerable marine threshold value (predicted no-effect concentration, PNEC) in almost the entire Öresund region. The PEC value was derived based on ship activity and discharges of scrubber water in 2018, while the PNEC value was derived based on the ecotoxicological assays performed within the EMERGE project. Notably, the modelling of open loop scrubber discharge water was performed using the ship traffic activity in 2018 when less than 200 ships in the Baltic Sea used scrubbers, collectively releasing 192 million tonnes of discharge water. By 2022 there were approximately 800 ships equipped with scrubbers in the Baltic Sea. In the high scrubber future scenario (S3) in 2050 this led to an assumption of the considerably higher scrubber water discharge (1740 million tonnes), representing almost one order of magnitude higher compared to our baseline scenario in 2018. In addition, our impact assessment, following Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) guidelines, shows that a ban on discharge water from scrubbers should be considered in the entire Baltic and North Sea region, since all sea basins in the region fail to reach good environmental status (GES) as defined by the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (Directive 2008/56/EC). However, the costs of such a measure for the shipping sector (banning discharges from scrubbers, i.e., in practice a ban on scrubbers) have been questioned within the International Maritime Organisation (IMO). Therefore, EMERGE also focused on analysing to what extent the global scrubber fleet has reached break-even on their scrubber installations and the potential monetary gain of using Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) as compared to the more expensive Marine Gas Oil (MGO) or Very Low Sulphur Fuel Oil (VLSFO). Our results showed that 51% of the global scrubber fleet had reached break-even by the end of 2022, resulting in a summarised balance of 4.7 billion €2019. In addition, the marine ecotoxicity damage cost, by not restricting scrubbers in the Baltic Sea Area, accumulated to >680 million €2019 from 2015 to end of 2022. For air quality, both future scenarios showed a decrease in shipping contribution to PM2.5 exposure by a factor of 2 to 3 compared to our baseline scenario in 2018. Scenario 8 is somewhat more efficient in decreasing the shipping originated PM2.5 than scenario 3. Using the Greenhouse gas and Air pollution Interactions and Synergies (GAINS) model for human health impact assessment in scenario 3 revealed the loss of life expectancy in most areas around the Baltic Sea, when considering all sources, to be limited to two to four months. However, the differences in life shortening between Scenarios 3 and 8 are two to three orders of magnitude lower when compared to human health impacts resulting from all sources, indicating that scrubbers alone have a minor impact on human health in the Baltic region from air quality perspective. For Öresund case the shipping-related health impacts from PM2.5 represented approximately 10% of the total burden of air pollution, in 2050 scenario simulations this burden decreased to 7-9%. Important improvement of air quality in the scenario simulations come also from reduction of NO2 which is a criteria pollutant regulated by the Air Quality Directive, where the decrease is 3 to 5-fold. In relative terms the shipping contribution to NO2 concentration levels, however, maintains similar, approximately 25%, as the land emissions are also expected to decrease. The GAINS health impact assessment for the Baltic Sea was compared to the Solent region using a statistical technique. The latter study showed that a relatively small fraction of all premature deaths in Southampton, Portsmouth, Poole, Christchurch & Bournemouth are attributable to air pollution from shipping, corroborating the conclusion that the deployment scrubbers alone has a minor impact on human life shortening through atmospheric transport.
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| 9. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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Framework to evaluate external costs of shipping
- 2019
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The activities that utilize the marine environment are today many, ranging from oil and natural gas extraction, to fishing and aquaculture to renewable energy installations and finally shipping and leisure boating. Thus, there is a need to understand the pressures and impacts from the different sectors on the marine environment to ensure sustainable use of marine resources. One framework to study this is the ecosystem service approach where the benefit the natural environment supply to human society via economic and social benefits, are mapped and assessed as well as the associated costs of environmental degradation due to different human activities (Beaumont et al. 2007). Ecosystem conditions refers to the physical, chemical and biological condition of an ecosystem at a particular point in time. In EU, member states are obligated to monitor the condition (or status) of both freshwater and marine ecosystems. This is regulated via two EU Directives; the Water Framework Directive (WFD, 2000/60/EC) which covers freshwater, transitional and coastal waters up to 1 nm from the continental baseline and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD, 2008/56/EC) which handles all marine waters up to the Exclusive Economic Zone. The overarching aim of both WFD and MSFD is that all water bodies in the EU shall reach or maintain god status of waters, habitat and resources. This condition is termed “Good Ecological Status” (GEcS) in the WFD and “Good Environmental Status” (GES) in the MSFD. The status and conditions of ecosystems are also strongly linked to human well-being through ecosystem services as ecosystems need to be in good status in order to provide multiple ecosystem services (Pandeya et al. 2016). Shipping is an activity responsible for a range of different pressures affecting the marine environment via discharge of hazardous compounds from greywater, bilge water, scrubber water and antifouling paints; emission of nutrients from blackwater, greywater, food waste and deposition of nitrogen oxides (NOX); emissions of acidifying compounds from scrubber wash-water and deposition of sulphur oxides (SOX); spread of invasive species from hulls or ballast water; and finally, underwater noise. Shipping also affect air quality, human health, and global warming via air pollutants with transboundary properties such as fine particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), nitrogen oxides (NOX), sulfur oxides (SOX). Emissions to air of black carbon and greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) are also important for the global warming impact. The knowledge about ecosystem and health impacts of air pollution is comparatively well developed, much because land-based emissions of air pollutants have been regulated in international and national regulations since the 80-ies in a tight science-policy regime. Since the 80-ies, analytical progress has been substantial in areas such as air pollution inventories and monitoring, emission dispersion modelling, as well as integrated assessment modelling of cost effective international air pollution control. Since the 90-ies, these analytical progresses have been complemented with additional interest from environmental economists as well as health researchers. Currently, the effect of large-scale air pollution emission changes on ecosystem-, human health-, and economic impacts can be modelled with reasonable accuracy, and analysis of these impacts are done with established methods and models. Due to the transboundary nature of air pollution emissions, emissions are governed not only by national legislation but also by international legislation and agreements. Some examples of high relevance for shipping emissions are the revised EU Sulphur-in-fuels / Fuel Quality Directive (Directive No 1999/32/EC & 2009/30/EC) and the International Maritime Organisations’ (IMO) use of sulphur and nitrogen emission control areas (SECA and NECA respectively) as well as limits on sulphur content in fuel (IMO 2017). Although shipping emission impacts on air quality are relatively well established, the knowledge base is not the same for impacts on the marine environment and a coherent environmental impact assessment of shipping has not yet been made. This risk policies to be biased towards air pollution whilst trading off impacts on marine environments. Therefore, it is important that we gain a better understanding on how shipping and other sectors affect marine ecosystems, as the pressure on marine resources and the demand for marine ecosystem services in many marine water bodies are too high. The focus of this report is the shipping industry and to assess what damage it may cause on human health, marine ecosystems and the climate. Determining the total impact of shipping is a complex task, primarily with respect to marine ecosystems, as the water emissions is very diverse ranging from hazardous compounds, acidifying substances, underwater noise, eutrophying substances to invasive species. The aim of this report is to develop a framework to determine how different pressures from shipping affect ecosystem services and human health, with an emphasis on marine environment due to larger knowledge gaps in this area. The framework could in a later stage be used to determine the resulting cost for society due to shipping induced degradation of ecosystem services and impacts on human health and climate.
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| 10. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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Valuating environmental impacts from ship emissions – The marine perspective
- 2021
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Ingår i: Journal of Environmental Management. - : Elsevier BV. - 0301-4797 .- 1095-8630. ; 282
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Shipping is an activity responsible for a range of different pressures affecting the marine environment, air quality and human welfare. The methodology on how ship emissions impact air quality and human health are comparatively well established and used in cost-benefit analysis of policy proposals. However, the knowledge base is not the same for impacts on the marine environment and a coherent environmental and socio-economic impact assessment of shipping has not yet been made. This risk policies to be biased towards air pollution whilst trading off impacts on the marine environment. The aim of the current study was to develop a comprehensive framework on how different pressures from shipping degrade marine ecosystems, air quality and human welfare. A secondary aim was to quantify the societal damage costs of shipping due to the degradation of human welfare in a Baltic Sea case study. By adding knowledge from marine ecotoxicology and life-cycle analysis to the existing knowledge from climate, air pollution and environmental economics we were able to establish a more comprehensive conceptual framework that allows for valuation of environmental impacts from shipping, but it still omits economic values for biological pollution, littering and underwater noise. The results for the Baltic Sea case showed the total annual damage costs of Baltic Sea shipping to be 2.9 billion €2010 (95% CI 2.0–3.9 billion €2010). The damage costs due to impacts on marine eutrophication (768 million €2010) and marine ecotoxicity (582 million €2010) were in the same range as the total damage costs associated with reduced air quality (816 million €2010) and climate change (737 million €2010). The framework and the results from the current study can be used in future socio-economic assessments of ship emissions to prioritize cost efficient measures. The framework can be used globally but the damage costs presented on the marine environment are restricted to emissions on the Baltic Sea and Kattegat region as they are based on willingness to pay studies conducted on citizens around the Baltic Sea where eutrophication and emissions of chemicals are particularly threats to the state of the Baltic Sea.
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| 11. |
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| 12. |
- Eklund, Britta, et al.
(författare)
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Contamination of a boatyard for maintenance of pleasure boats
- 2014
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Ingår i: Journal of Soils and Sediments. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 1439-0108 .- 1614-7480. ; 14:5, s. 955-967
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Purpose The object of this study was to study a boat maintenance facility by investigating the degree of contamination and assessing how leachate water from soil affects organisms from three trophic levels. Materials and methods Surface and subsurface (20-cm depth) soil samples were collected in a typical boatyard (200 boats, 12,000 m(2)) at a 70-(station A), 90-(station B), 120-(station C) and 160-m (station D) distance from the shoreline. Three replicate samples, similar to 10 m apart, were taken at stations A, B and C, respectively, and one replicate was taken at station D (i.e. altogether 20 samples with 10 at surface and subsurface, respectively). The total copper (Cu), lead (Pb), tin (Sn) and zinc (Zn) concentrations were determined for all replicates. Pooled samples from the respective stations were used for analysis of organotin compounds, irgarol and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Leachate waters were produced from the pooled samples and used for toxicity testing with the bacterium Vibrio fischeri, the macroalga Ceramium tenuicorne and the crustacean Nitocra spinipes. Results and discussion Very high concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn were detected, with maximum values of 16,300, 6,430 and 18,600 mg/kg dw, respectively. Organic hazardous compounds were found in high concentrations with maximum values of 37, 27 and 16 mg/kg dw for tributytin (TBT), dibutyltin (DBT) and triphenyltin (TPhT), respectively. All pollutants exceeded existing guidance values for both sensitive land use and less sensitive land use by several factors, in both surface and subsurface soil. The least and worst cases of total amount of TBT (12 000 m(2) and 0.2 m depth) were estimated to be 10 and 122 kg of TBT. Leachates were shown to be toxic in all three test organisms. Conclusions Several known hazardous pollutants were found in boatyard maintenance areas and they exceeded recommended guidance values by several factors. Leachates were shown to be toxic to test organisms of several trophic orders. This underlines that boat maintenance facilities in general should be better regulated to minimize further exposure to humans and spread of contaminants in the environment. The amounts of contaminants accumulated in these areas call for investigations of how remediation should be performed.
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| 13. |
- García-Gómez, Elisa, et al.
(författare)
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Characterization of scrubber water discharges from ships using comprehensive suspect screening strategies based on GC-APCI-HRMS
- 2023
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Ingår i: Chemosphere. - 0045-6535 .- 1879-1298. ; 343
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- An extended suspect screening approach for the comprehensive chemical characterization of scrubber discharge waters from exhaust gas cleaning systems (EGCSs), used to reduce atmospheric shipping emissions of sulphur oxides, was developed. The suspect screening was based on gas chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) and focused on the identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their alkylated derivatives (alkyl-PAHs), which are among the most frequent and potentially toxic organic contaminants detected in these matrices. Although alkyl-PAHs can be even more abundant than parent compounds, information regarding their occurrence in scrubber waters is scarce. For compound identification, an in-house compound database was built, with 26 suspect groups, including 25 parent PAHs and 23 alkyl-PAH homologues. With this approach, 7 PAHs and 12 clusters of alkyl-PAHs were tentatively identified, whose occurrence was finally confirmed by target analysis using GC coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Finally, a retrospective analysis was performed to identify other relevant (poly)cyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) of potential concern in scrubber waters. According to it, 18 suspect groups were tentatively identified, including biphenyls, dibenzofurans, dibenzothiophenes and oxygenated PAHs derivatives. All these compounds could be used as relevant markers of scrubber water contamination in heavy traffic marine areas and be considered as potential stressors when evaluating scrubber water toxicity.
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| 14. |
- Granhag, Lena, 1974, et al.
(författare)
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Best practise for cleaning of ship hulls
- 2023
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- This report summarizes the methods available for cleaning based on a review of commercial equipment and the information is divided into handling and operation, efficacy in removal and capture and impact on paint.
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| 15. |
- Jalkanen, Jukka-Pekka, et al.
(författare)
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Modelling of discharges from Baltic Sea shipping
- 2021
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Ingår i: Ocean Science. - : Copernicus GmbH. - 1812-0784 .- 1812-0792.
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- This paper describes the new developments of the Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model (STEAM) which enable the modelling of pollutant discharges to water from ships. These include nutrients from black/grey water discharges as well as from food waste. Further, the modelling of contaminants in ballast, black, grey and scrubber water, bilge discharges, and stern tube oil leaks are also described as well as releases of contaminants from antifouling paints.Each of the discharges is regulated by different sections of the IMO MARPOL convention, and emission patterns of different pollution releases vary significantly. The discharge patterns and total amounts for the year 2012 in the Baltic Sea area are reported and open-loop SOx scrubbing effluent was found to be the second-largest pollutant stream by volume. The scrubber discharges have increased significantly in recent years, and their environmental impacts need to be investigated in detail.
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| 16. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
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Antifouling paints leach copper in excess – study of metal release rates and efficacy along a salinity gradient
- 2020
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Ingår i: Water Research. - : Elsevier BV. - 0043-1354 .- 1879-2448. ; 186
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Antifouling paints are biocidal products applied to ship and boat hulls in order to prevent the growth and settlement of marine organisms, i.e. fouling. The release of biocides from the surface of the paint film act to repel or poison potential settling organisms. Currently, the most commonly used biocide in antifouling paints is cuprous oxide. In the EU, antifouling products are regulated under the Biocidal Products Regulation (BPR), which states that the recommended dose should be the minimum necessary to achieve the desired effect. For antifouling products, the dose is measured as the release rate of biocide(s) from coating. In this study, the release rates of copper and zinc from eight different coatings for leisure boats were determined through static exposure of coated panels in four different harbors located in Swedish waters along a salinity gradient ranging from 0 to 27 PSU. The results showed the release rate of copper to increase with increasing salinity. Paints with a higher content of cuprous oxide were also found to release larger amounts of copper. The coatings’ ability to prevent biofouling was also evaluated and no significant difference in efficacy between the eight tested products was observed at the brackish and marine sites. Hence, the products with high release rates of copper were equally efficient as those with 4 – 6 times lower releases. These findings suggest that current antifouling paints on the market are leaching copper in excess of the effective dose in brackish and marine waters. Additionally, the results from the freshwater site showed no benefit in applying a copper-containing paint for the purpose of fouling prevention. This indicates that the use of biocidal paints in freshwater bodies potentially results in an unnecessary release of copper. By reducing the release rates of copper from antifouling paints in marine waters and restricting the use of biocidal paints in freshwater, the load of copper to the environment could be substantially reduced.
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| 17. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
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Are silicone foul-release coatings a viable and environmentally sustainable alternative to biocidal antifouling coatings in the Baltic Sea region?
- 2022
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Ingår i: Marine Pollution Bulletin. - Stockholm : Elsevier BV. - 0025-326X .- 1879-3363. ; 184
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- To combat unwanted fouling on immersed hulls, biocidal antifouling coatings are commonly applied to vessels trafficking the Baltic Sea. Here, the efficacy, environmental sustainability and market barriers of silicone foul-release coatings (FRCs) was assessed for this region to evaluate their viability as replacements for biocidal coatings. Coated panels were exposed statically over a 1 year period at three locations in the Baltic Sea region to assess the long-term performance of a biocide-free FRC and two copper coatings. The FRC was found to perform equally well or significantly better than the copper coatings. Even though most silicone FRCs on the market are biocide-free, a review of the literature regarding toxic effects and the identity and environmental fate of leachables shows that they may not be completely environmentally benign, simply for the lack of biocides. Nonetheless, FRCs are substantially less toxic compared to biocidal antifouling coatings and their use should be promoted. © 2022 The Authors
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| 18. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
-
Assessment of efficacy and excess toxicity of antifouling paints for leisure boats - A guide for copper-based antifouling paints intended for use in the Baltic Sea region
- 2021
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The regulation of antifouling paints in the European Union falls under the Biocide Products regulation (BPR, Regulation (EU) 528/2012) and consists of two assessments: an environmental risk assessment (ERA) and an efficacy assessment. The efficacy assessment is key for the placement of an antifouling paint on the market as a biocidal product must be shown to be effective to gain approval. At the same time, the BPR states clearly that biocidal products should not be excessively toxic, i.e. release active substances to the environment in excess of the minimum necessary to achieve the desired effect. According to the BPR guidance document, an acceptable efficacy for antifouling paints is obtained if a static panel test is able to demonstrate a surface coverage of macrofouling below 25% on the treated surface when the control has at least 75% coverage. Guidance on how to determine whether a paint is excessively toxic is however lacking from the document. Objective and method The overall objective of this report was to compile the current knowledge on the efficacy of antifouling products and the minimum dose of copper. Regional pleasure craft marina scenarios for emission estimation were recently introduced for the harmonised environmental risk assessment of antifouling paint, whereby marine EU waters have been divided into four regions (Baltic, Baltic Transition, Atlantic and Mediterranean). This report focuses solely on the Baltic, Baltic Transition and Atlantic regions and all results were related to these three regions. A review was conducted where both peer-reviewed scientific articles and previously unpublished data relating to fouling pressure and efficacy assessments of copper and biocide-free antifouling paints in these regions were compiled. Even though the Atlantic region is included in the assessment it must be emphasised that the data for this region is exclusively collected from the northern Swedish west coast (Skagerrak). Most of the data were obtained from the EU BONUS-project CHANGE (Changing antifouling practices for leisure boats in the Baltic Sea) which contained both fouling and efficacy assessment of copper coatings in marinas during up to four consecutive years (2013–2016). Additional studies from 2018 and 2020 were also included in the compilation. The efficacy of a total of 10 copper coatings (cuprous oxide or copper powder) available on the Swedish market could thus be assessed at as many as 18 locations across 6 different years. Fouling pressure The minimum necessary dose will depend on the fouling pressure (i.e. the intensity and type of fouling organisms) of the region where the paint is intended for use. The fouling pressure, measured as the surface coverage of macrofouling on static control panels in the Baltic Sea region, was found to exceed 25% at all studied marinas (17 locations) and years (4 years). However, in 20% of the cases, the macrofouling coverage was below 75%, indicating that the brackish Baltic Sea does not confine well to the current requirements for efficacy testing. The fouling pressure was highest at the Atlantic site but varied considerably between sites in the Baltic and Baltic Transition regions. Also, high interannual variation in macrofouling cover was observed for several of the marinas in these two regions. The two most northern sites of the Baltic region were dominated by mainly soft fouling indicating a lower need for biocidal coatings. No general patterns of fouling pressure could however be concluded for the three regions. Efficacy of copper paints The efficacy assessments of 10 commercial copper-based coatings showed acceptable results at 82 – 100% of evaluated locations. Products currently on the Swedish market are thus highly efficient, with macrofouling coverages on static panels well below the 25% macrofouling criteria. A combination of high fouling pressure and low surface seawater temperatures were often found to coincide at the few instances where some copper paints failed to meet the set efficacy criteria. The lower temperatures may have acted to slow the release of copper, resulting in some paints failing to withstand the presiding high fouling pressure. Hence, both biotic (fouling pressure) and abiotic factors (temperature) may influence the results of an efficacy assessment in the Baltic Sea region, in particular for low-leaching copper paints. Efficacy of biocide-free paints The efficacy of a fouling release coating (i.e. silicone coating) was assessed during a 5-months long field experiment in 2020 at one test site in the Baltic and two test sites in the Atlantic region. The result showed the control panels deployed in the Atlantic region to be heavily fouled with macrofouling (100% coverage) but the fouling release coating had no macrofouling and was as effective as two copper-based coatings for professional use. Thus, silicone paints present an effective biocide-free antifouling strategy already available to boat owners. Excessive toxicity Efficacy test results offer limited support for the evaluation of excessive toxicity, especially if the test is carried out in a region other than that of intended use. An evaluation of excessive toxicity is therefore proposed based on field release rates. Copper release rates of 2 and 7 μg/cm2/day were found to be sufficient to prevent all macrofouling settlement in the Baltic and Baltic Transition regions, respectively. Copper paints with field release rates in excess of these values can thus be considered excessively toxic. In absence of field release rates, a model is proposed for their estimation. The use of the model is however limited to hard and polishing paint only, due to lack of data for self-polishing paints. Gradient panels with paint stripes of increasingly diluted paint (i.e. decreasing amounts of biocide(s)) could also be used for the assessment of excess toxicity. Ideally, this assessment should be coupled with environmental release rate data to justify the need for the dose delivered by a given product. Considerations specific to the Baltic Sea region The combined findings of this report show that the conditions of the Baltic Sea region require specific consideration. The release rate of copper needed to deter macrofouling is lower in the Baltic than the Baltic Transition and Atlantic regions. The evaluation of efficacy and excessive toxicity should therefore be carried out in the marine region of intended use. Variability in fouling pressure and environmental parameters both between locations and years, even within the same marine region suggest however that care should be taken when choosing the test location. Additionally, the duration of the efficacy test should reflect product use. A period of 5 – 7 months of exposure is therefore suggested.
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| 19. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
-
Copper as a HELCOM core indicator
- 2021
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Part 1: Sources, environmental concentrations and state assessments in the Baltic Sea Part 2: EQS derivation for copper in sediment
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| 20. |
- Lagerström, Maria, et al.
(författare)
-
Flawed risk assessment of antifouling paints leads to exceedance of guideline values in Baltic Sea marinas
- 2020
-
Ingår i: Environmental Science and Pollution Research. - : Springer Science and Business Media LLC. - 0944-1344 .- 1614-7499. ; 27:22, s. 27674-27687
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The seasonal variations of dissolved and bioavailable copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were studied in two recreational marinas in Sweden and Finland. The time series from the two marinas were characterized by rising concentrations during the spring boat launching, elevated concentrations all through the peak boating season, and decreasing concentrations in autumn when boats were retrieved for winter storage. This pattern shows a clear link between Cu and Zn concentrations and boating activity, with antifouling paints as the principal source. The leaching from antifouling paints was also found to significantly alter the speciation of dissolved Cu and Zn in marina waters, with an increase of the proportion of metals that may be considered bioavailable. This change in speciation, which occurred without any change in dissolved organic carbon (DOC), further increases the environmental risk posed by antifouling paints. In the Swedish marina, dissolved Cu and Zn exceed both Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) and Predicted No Effect Concentrations (PNEC), indicating that the current Swedish risk assessment (RA) of antifouling paints is failing to adequately protect the marine environment. An evaluation of the RA performance showed the underlying cause to be an underestimation of the predicted environmental concentration (PEC) by factors of 2 and 5 for Cu and Zn, respectively. For both metals, the use of inaccurate release rates for the PEC derivation was found to be either mainly (Cu) or partly (Zn) responsible for the underestimation. For Zn, the largest source of error seems to be the use of an inappropriate partitioning coefficient (K-D) in the model. To ensure that the use of antifouling coatings does not adversely impact the sensitive Baltic Sea, it is thus recommended that the K-D value for Zn is revised and that representative release rates are used in the RA procedure.
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| 21. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
-
Identification of commercial and recreational vessels coated with banned organotin paint through screening of tin by portable XRF
- 2019
-
Ingår i: Journal of Hazardous Materials. - : Elsevier BV. - 1873-3336 .- 0304-3894. ; 362, s. 107-114
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The most effective biocide used historically in antifouling paints is tributyltin (TBT). However, due to its extreme toxicity to non-target organisms and its persistence in the environment, the use of TBT and other organotin compounds (OTCs) was restricted in EU on leisure boats and ships in 1989 and 2003, respectively. Nevertheless, studies worldwide still report TBT to be released from both ships and leisure boats. Here, we present a new application for a field portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF) used for screening for organotin paint through measurements of tin (Sn) on leisure boats and ships. Measurements on ships built after the restrictions showed concentrations of up to 68 μg Sn/cm2, likely due to impurities of inorganic Sn, as shown through chemical analysis of 21 organotin-free paints. A threshold value of 100 μg Sn/cm2is suggested, where exceedance indicates presence of OTCs. Screening with the XRF method showed 10% of the commercial vessels (n = 30) and 23–29% of leisure boats (n = 693, investigated in this and in a previous study) to hold concentrations exceeding 100 μg Sn/cm2. The XRF technique presented here provides a useful tool for quick screening and identification of vessels holding banned organotin paint.
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| 22. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
-
In situ release rates of Cu and Zn from commercial antifouling paints at different salinities
- 2018
-
Ingår i: Marine Pollution Bulletin. - : Elsevier BV. - 0025-326X .- 1879-3363. ; 127, s. 289-296
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Antifouling paints are environmentally risk assessed based on their biocidal release rates to the water phase. In situ release rates of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were derived for five commercial paints in two recreational marinas with different salinities (5 and 14 PSU) using an X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometer (XRF). Salinity was found to significantly affect the Cu release, with twice the amount of Cu released at the higher salinity, while its influence on the Zn release was paint-specific. Site-specific release rates for water bodies with salinity gradients, e.g. the Baltic Sea, are therefore necessary for more realistic risk assessments of antifouling paints. Furthermore, the in situ release rates were up to 8 times higher than those generated using standardized laboratory or calculation methods. The environmental risk assessment repeated with the field release rates concludes that it is questionable whether the studied products should be allowed on the Swedish market.
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| 23. |
|
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| 24. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
-
Quantification of Cu and Zn in antifouling paint films by XRF
- 2021
-
Ingår i: Talanta. - : Elsevier BV. - 0039-9140. ; 223
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Methods to determine the release of biocides (e.g. copper) and substances of concern (e.g. zinc) from antifouling paints are required for both the development of efficient products and their environmental risk assessment. To date, there are only two standardized methods available to estimate such release rates, but their reliability has been put into question. An alternative method, allowing determination of environmental release rates in the field of metallic or organometallic biocides by X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), has been developed and applied in recent years. In this study, the potential for standardization of the XRF method is investigated through evaluation of its accuracy, precision and transferability between instruments. Accurate quantification of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) in μg cm−2, despite differences in chemical composition, was demonstrated through comparison of calibration regression slopes for ten different antifouling paints and confirmed through the measurement of validation samples. Universal antifouling paint calibration curves are proposed for the determination of Cu and Zn in thin paint films, with a prediction uncertainty of around ±130 μg/cm2 for both metals. The transferability of the method to another instrument was also demonstrated. For both analyzers, concentrations of validation samples were within 5% of those determined through wet chemical analysis. Pre-requisites and recommendations for the application of the method as well as its applicability to both short- and long-term release rate studies in the field are also presented and discussed.
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| 25. |
- Lagerström, Maria, 1986, et al.
(författare)
-
Total tin and organotin speciation in historic layers of antifouling paint on leisure boat hulls
- 2017
-
Ingår i: Environmental Pollution. - : Elsevier BV. - 0269-7491 .- 1873-6424. ; 220, s. 1333-1341
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Despite their ban on small vessels in 1989 in the EU, organotin compounds (OTCs) are still being released into the environment due to their presence in historic paint layers on leisure boats. 23 paint samples scraped from recreational boats from three countries around the Baltic Sea were analyzed for total tin (Sn) and OTCs. Two antifouling paint products were also subjected to the same analyses. A new method for the detection of Sn in paint flake samples was developed and found to yield more accurate results compared to four different acid digestion methods. A new method was also developed for the extraction of OTCs from ground paint flakes. This endeavor revealed that existing methods for organotin analysis of sediment may not have full recoveries of OTCs if paint flakes are present in the sample. The hull paint samples had Sn concentrations ranging from 25 to 18,000 mg/kg paint and results showed that tributyltin (TBT) was detected in all samples with concentrations as high as 4.7 g (as Sn)/kg paint. TBT was however not always the major OTC. Triphenyltin (TPhT) was abundant in many samples, especially in those originating from Finland. Several other compounds such as monobutyltin (MBT), dibutyltin (DBT), tetrabutyltin (TeBT), monophenyltin (MPhT) and diphenyltin (DPhT) were also detected. These could be the result of degradation occurring on the hull or of impurities in the paint products as they were also identified in the two analyzed paint products. A linear correlation (r(2) = 0.934) was found between the total tin content and the sum of all detected OTCs. The detection of tin can therefore be used to indicate the presence of OTCs on leisure boats. (C) 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license.
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| 26. |
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| 27. |
- Lindgren, Fredrik, 1979, et al.
(författare)
-
Copper release rate needed to inhibit fouling on the west coast of Sweden and control of copper release using zinc oxide
- 2018
-
Ingår i: Biofouling. - : Informa UK Limited. - 0892-7014 .- 1029-2454. ; 34:4, s. 453-463
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- How zinc oxide influences copper release has been tested and the lowest release rate of copper from various combinations of copper and zinc in a paint matrix evaluated, whilst still deterring macrofouling, including barnacles and bryozoans. Copper (I) oxide was added to a generic AF paint in 0, 8.5, 11.7 or 16.3 wt% copper oxide in combination with 0, 10 or 20 wt% zinc oxide and applied on PMMA panels. The results show that zinc influences the release rate of copper. When 10 and 20 wt% zinc was added, the total amount of copper released significantly increased by on average 32 and 47% respectively. All treatments that included copper were successful in deterring macrofouling, including the treatment with the lowest average Cu release rate, ie 4.68gcm(-2)day(-1).
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| 28. |
- Lunde Hermansson, Anna, 1987, et al.
(författare)
-
Comparing emissions of polyaromatic hydrocarbons and metals from marine fuels and scrubbers
- 2021
-
Ingår i: Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. - : Elsevier BV. - 1361-9209 .- 1879-2340. ; 97
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In January 2020, new global regulations were implemented to limit the maximum sulphur content in marine fuels. As an alternative to switch to compliant fuels, the regulations allow for installations of exhaust gas cleaning systems, e.g. scrubbers, that enables a continued use of less expensive heavy fuel oils (HFOs). Characterization of scrubber discharge water shows that the acidified water also becomes enriched with contaminants, and large quantities of metals and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are thus being discharged directly to the marine environment. When emissions of contaminants to the atmosphere and the marine environment are evaluated simultaneously, the results show that HFO, with scrubbers installed, generates higher emission factors of both metals and PAHs compared to MGO. This highlights the importance of including both the marine and the atmospheric perspective when comparing environmental loads and impact of contaminants from shipping.
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| 29. |
- Lunde Hermansson, Anna, 1987, et al.
(författare)
-
Cumulative environmental risk assessment of metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from ship activities in ports
- 2023
-
Ingår i: Marine Pollution Bulletin. - : Elsevier BV. - 0025-326X .- 1879-3363. ; 189
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Marine environmental risk assessments rarely consider the cumulative risk from multiple contaminants and sources. Ships give rise to a range of contaminants, originating from different onboard sources, resulting in contaminant loads to the marine environment. Here, the Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model (STEAM), in combination with the hydrodynamic and chemical fate model MAMPEC, was used to calculate loads and predicted environmental concentrations (PECs) of metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in four ports. PECs were compared to the predicted no effect concentrations (PNEC) to assess environmental risk from the different onboard sources, both separately and cumulatively. The results show that three out of four ports were subject to unacceptable risk. This study highlights the importance of accounting for multiple contaminant sources when assessing the marine environmental risks of shipping and challenges the suitability of the proposed new international guidelines on how to assess risk of scrubber water discharge.
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| 30. |
- Lunde Hermansson, Anna, 1987, et al.
(författare)
-
Zinc in sediment - an environmental quality standard overview
- 2022
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The overall aim of the proposed report was to develop an Environmental Quality Standard overview for zinc in marine and freshwater sediments, including to propose threshold values of zinc in these two compartments. In addition, the proposed threshold values were compared to measured zinc concentrations from monitoring data in freshwater and marine sediments.
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| 31. |
- Maljutenko, Ilja, et al.
(författare)
-
Modelling spatial dispersion of contaminants from shipping lanes in the Baltic Sea
- 2021
-
Ingår i: Marine Pollution Bulletin. - : Elsevier BV. - 0025-326X .- 1879-3363. ; 173
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Major sources of pollution from shipping to marine environments are antifouling paint residues and discharges of bilge, black, grey and ballast water and scrubber discharge water. The dispersion of copper, zinc, naphthalene, pyrene, and dibromochloromethane have been studied using the Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model, the General Estuarine Transport Model, and the Eulerian tracer transport model in the Baltic Sea in 2012. Annual loads of the contaminants ranged from 10-2 tons for pyrene to 100 s of tons for copper. The dispersion of the contaminants is determined by the surface kinetic energy and vertical stratification at the location of the discharge. The elevated concentration of the contaminants at the surface persists for about two-days and the contaminants are dispersed over the spatial scale of 10-60 km. The Danish Sounds, the southwestern Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Finland are under the heaviest pressure of shipborne contaminants in the Baltic Sea.
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| 32. |
- Moksnes, Per-Olav, et al.
(författare)
-
Fritidsbåtars påverkan på grunda kustekosystem i sverige
- 2019
-
Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Sveriges natursköna kust med vidsträckta skärgårdar erbjuder fantastiska förhållanden för fritidsbåtliv. Idag finns uppskattningsvis mer än 700 000 fritidsbåtar i Sverige, vilket är en av de högsta siffrorna i världen sett till befolkningsmängden. Kustens vågskyddade skärgård ger också goda förutsättningar att förvara fritidsbåtar vid bryggor, och idag täcks stora områden av bryggor och småbåtshamnar. Det stora antalet båtar och bryggor kan ge betydande effekter på miljön, men kunskapen om fritidsbåtlivets sammanlagda påverkan på Sveriges kustmiljöer har hittills varit bristfällig. Havsmiljöinstitutets mål med denna rapport har varit att sammanställa kunskapsläget kring hur fritidsbåtar påverkar grunda kustekosystem i Sverige, samt bedöma omfattningen av denna påverkan och om utveckling är hållbar. Syftet med rapporten är att bidra till utvecklingen av en mer hållbar förvaltning av fritidsbåtlivet genom att sammanställa vetenskaplig kunskap inom detta område på ett lättillgängligt sätt. Sammanställningen visar att det finns ett starkt stöd i den vetenskapliga litteraturen för att fritidsbåtar ger upphov till många negativa effekter på kustmiljön. Med fritidsbåtslivet följer en rad olika fysiska strukturer och aktiviteter som var och en ger upphov till flera olika typer av miljöpåverkan. En ökad utbredning av småbåtshamnar, bryggor och muddrade områden medför förluster av viktiga bottenmiljöer och leder ofta till en långvarig försämring av miljöförhållanden lokalt. Muddrings- och dumpningsaktiviteter leder till ökad uppgrumling och spridning av sediment, näringsämnen och miljögifter över stora områden, vilket bland annat påverkar bottenvegetation, fiskar och musslor negativt. Båttrafik och ankring leder till uppgrumling och erosion av sediment samt till skador på bottenmiljön. Undervattensbuller från båtarnas motorer stör också fiskar och däggdjur. Vidare medför användning av fritidsbåtar betydande utsläpp av giftiga ämnen och föroreningar från båtbottenfärger och förbränningsmotorer. Drygt 60 % av alla bryggor och småbåtshamnar återfinns i grunda (<3 m), vågskyddade områden med mjukbottnar, trots att de endast utgör en fjärdedel av kustens totala grundområden. Dessa områden lämpar sig väl för båtförvaring, men är också en av kustens mest produktiva och värdefulla miljöer. Grunda mjukbottnar är en viktig miljö för olika kärlväxter och kransalger, som i sin tur utgör viktiga uppväxthabitat för många olika fiskarter och kräftdjur. Rapporten visar att dessa miljöer är extra känsliga för en majoritet av de störningar som fritidsbåtlivet ger upphov till. Sammantaget medför detta att fritidsbåtslivet i förhållande till sin omfattning genererar stora skador på miljöer med höga naturvärden.
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| 33. |
- Soares Reis de Oliveira, Dinis, 1991, et al.
(författare)
-
A novel tool for cost and emission reduction related to ship underwater hull maintenance
- 2022
-
Ingår i: Journal of Cleaner Production. - : Elsevier Ltd. - 0959-6526 .- 1879-1786. ; 356
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- International shipping plays a vital role in the world's transport system and economy. However, shipping faces challenges in terms of reducing its environmental and health impact, namely emission of greenhouse gases, air pollutants, and chemical substances to the marine environment. In particular, the roughness condition of underwater surfaces of a ship hull affects the ship's energy efficiency, with marine growth (biofouling) and mechanical roughness leading to propulsion powering penalties. Measures to control biofouling, using antifouling coatings and in-water hull cleaning, may also be associated with significant impacts to the marine environment. In the current study, a new tool is presented, HullMASTER (Hull MAintenance STrategies for Emission Reduction), which aims at enabling the shipping industry and authorities in the Baltic Sea region to make evidence-based decisions on hull maintenance strategies. HullMASTER simulates emissions to air and water, to calculate the differences in economic cost for operators, as well as health- and environmental damage costs between different hull maintenance scenarios. Validation of HullMASTER predictions against 40 vessel-years of in-service performance data on propulsive performance, with operations in the Baltic Sea region, shows good agreement, averaging within 5 percentage-point difference in propulsion penalty. Further, a scenario-based demonstration of HullMASTER on a general cargo vessel shows that, in the comparison between a silicone foul-release coating and business-as-usual scenario of a biocidal coating, retrofitting the coating to a foul-release coating can result in significant savings for society, i.e., along with marginal savings in cost for ship operators. Results for such comparisons and analysis will however be dependent on specific vessel cases and operational profiles, thence the value of an interactive tool such as HullMASTER. © 2022 The Authors
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| 34. |
- Soares Reis de Oliveira, Dinis, 1991, et al.
(författare)
-
HullMASTER
- 2022
-
Ingår i: Journal of Cleaner Production. - : Elsevier BV. - 0959-6526.
-
Annan publikation (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- HullMASTER installation files (zipped folder). Please follow the installation instructions outlined in "HullMASTER_QuickStartGuide.pdf" included in the download folder. HullMASTER is a calculation tool on ship hull maintenance strategies for the Baltic Sea region. This tool enables shipowners, charterers and different state authorities to compare different ship hull maintenance strategies in terms of costs for shipping operators, as well as societal and environmental costs (externalities). Requirements to run HullMASTER: Windows operating system and installed MATLAB Runtime (free license).
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| 35. |
- Turner, David R., 1951, et al.
(författare)
-
Shipping and the environment: Smokestack emissions, scrubbers and unregulated oceanic consequences
- 2017
-
Ingår i: Elementa. - : University of California Press. - 2325-1026. ; 5
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- While shipping has long been recognised as a very carbon-efficient transport medium, there is an increasing focus on its broader environmental consequences. The International Maritime Organisation is responsible for the regulation of ship emissions arising from fuel combustion. Their current regulations are, however, much less strict than those applying to land-based transport within the European Union. Five different groups of pollutant emission from ship smokestacks are addressed in this paper: sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, organic matter and metals. The reduction of sulphur oxide emissions into the atmosphere using scrubber technology adds another dimension to the discussion, as this approach results in focused discharge of some pollutants to the surface water. A scoping calculation shows that an openloop scrubber on a medium-sized ship could discharge more copper and zinc daily to the surface water than the ship’s antifouling paint. The use of antifouling paint in the European Union is subject to a prior risk assessment, but scrubber discharges are not subject to any such risk assessment. This situation presents a problem from the perspective of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, as environmental monitoring programmes in some coastal areas of the Baltic Sea have shown that levels of both copper and zinc exceed environmental quality standards. To fulfil the Marine Strategy Framework Directive requirements and achieve Good Environmental Status, having knowledge of the magnitude of different anthropogenic pressures is important. Metal inputs from open-loop scrubbers have been largely neglected until now: some metals have the potential to serve as tracers for monitoring scrubber discharges.
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| 36. |
- Wang, Di, et al.
(författare)
-
A strong enhancement of corrosion and wear resistance of polyurethane-based coating by chemically grafting of organosolv lignin
- 2024
-
Ingår i: Materials Today Chemistry. - : Elsevier. - 2468-5194. ; 35
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Corrosion and wear pose significant challenges to equipment operating in harsh environments. Thus, protective coatings are needed. Anti-corrosion and anti-wear coatings are traditionally fossil-based and often contain environmentally harmful additives. Achieving anti-corrosion and anti-wear coatings based on environmentally benign and sustainable materials is important and a significant challenge. This work focused on the development of organosolv lignin-based polyurethane (OS_lignin-PU) coatings. The coatings were synthesised and evaluated for corrosion protection using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and for wear properties using nanoindentation and nano scratch measurements. EIS revealed that the optimal lignin content for corrosion protection purposes in the OS_lignin-PU coatings was 15Â wt%. Moreover, addition of 15Â wt% lignin to the OS_lignin-PU coatings also enhanced their wear resistance, as evidenced by reduced thickness loss during tribometer tests. The nano scratch measurements revealed that OS_lignin-PU coatings containing 15Â wt% lignin exhibited the lowest scratch depth and friction coefficient. It is found that the developed lignin-containing coating exhibits remarkable corrosion and wear resistance, making it a promising sustainable material in various applications for pursuing sustainable development.
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| 37. |
- Wrange, Anna-Lisa, et al.
(författare)
-
Monitoring biofouling as a management tool for reducing toxic antifouling practices in the Baltic Sea
- 2020
-
Ingår i: Journal of Environmental Management. - : Academic Press. - 0301-4797 .- 1095-8630. ; 264
-
Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Over two million leisure boats use the coastal areas of the Baltic Sea for recreational purposes. The majority of these boats are painted with toxic antifouling paints that release biocides into the coastal ecosystems and negatively impact non-targeted species. Regulations concerning the use of antifouling paints differ dramatically between countries bordering the Baltic Sea and most of them lack the support of biological data. In the present study, we collected data on biofouling in 17 marinas along the Baltic Sea coast during three consecutive boating seasons (May–October 2014, 2015 and 2016). In this context, we compared different monitoring strategies and developed a fouling index (FI) to characterise marinas according to the recorded biofouling abundance and type (defined according to the hardness and strength of attachment to the substrate). Lower FI values, i.e. softer and/or less abundant biofouling, were consistently observed in marinas in the northern Baltic Sea. The decrease in FI from the south-western to the northern Baltic Sea was partially explained by the concomitant decrease in salinity. Nevertheless, most of the observed changes in biofouling seemed to be determined by local factors and inter-annual variability, which emphasizes the necessity for systematic monitoring of biofouling by end-users and/or authorities for the effective implementation of non-toxic antifouling alternatives in marinas. Based on the obtained results, we discuss how monitoring programs and other related measures can be used to support adaptive management strategies towards more sustainable antifouling practices in the Baltic Sea. © 2020 The Authors
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| 38. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
-
A novel XRF method to measure environmental release of copper and zinc from antifouling paints
- 2017
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Ingår i: Environmental Pollution. - : Elsevier BV. - 0269-7491 .- 1873-6424. ; 225, s. 490-496
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The release of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) from vessels and leisure crafts coated with antifouling paints can pose a threat to water quality in semi-enclosed areas such as harbors and marinas as well as to coastal archipelagos. However, no reliable, practical and low-cost method exists to measure the direct release of metals from antifouling paints. Therefore, the paint industry and regulatory authorities are obliged to use release rate measurements derived from either mathematical models or from laboratory studies. To bridge this gap, we have developed a novel method using a handheld X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometer (XRF) to determine the cumulative release of Cu and Zn from antifouling paints. The results showed a strong linear relationship between XRF K-alpha net intensities and metal concentrations, as determined by ICP-MS. The release of Cu and Zn were determined for coated panels exposed in harbors located in the Baltic Sea and in Kattegat. The field study showed salinity to have a strong impact on the release of Cu, i.e. the release increased with salinity. Contrary, the effect of salinity on Zn was not as evident. As exemplified in this work, the XRF method also makes it possible to identify the governing parameters to the release of Cu and Zn, e.g. salinity and type of paint formulation. Thus, the XRF method can be used to measure environmentally relevant releases of metallic compounds to design more efficient and optimized antifouling coatings. (C) 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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| 39. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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Effects of scrubber washwater discharge on microplankton in the Baltic Sea
- 2019
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Ingår i: Marine Pollution Bulletin. - : Elsevier BV. - 0025-326X .- 1879-3363. ; 145, s. 316-324
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- In 2020, the global cap of maximum allowable sulphur content in marine fuel will be reduced from the current 3.5% to 0.5%. Another way to reduce the sulphur emissions is to install a seawater scrubber that cleans exhausts but instead release acidic water containing nutrients and contaminants back to the marine environment. In the current study, scrubber washwater was tested on a Baltic Sea microplankton community. A significant increase in chlorophyll a, particulate organic phosphorus (POP), carbon (POC) and nitrogen (PON) were observed when the community was exposed to 10% scrubber washwater for 13 days as compared to the control. A laboratory experiment with the filamentous cyanobacteria Nodularia spumigena and the chain-forming diatom Melosira cf. arctica showed negative responses in photosynthetic activity (EC10 = 8.6% for N. spumigena) and increased primary productivity (EC10 = 5.5% for M. cf. arctica), implying species-specific responses to scrubber washwater discharge.
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| 40. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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Effects of seawater scrubbing on a microplanktonic community during a summer-bloom in the Baltic Sea
- 2021
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Ingår i: Environmental Pollution. - : Elsevier BV. - 0269-7491 .- 1873-6424. ; 291
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has gradually applied stricter regulations on the maximum sulphur content permitted in marine fuels and from January 1, 2020, the global fuel sulphur limit was reduced from 3.5% to 0.5%. An attractive option for shipowners is to install exhaust gas cleaning systems, also known as scrubbers, and continue to use high sulphur fuel oil. In the scrubber, the exhausts are led through a fine spray of water, in which sulphur oxides are easily dissolved. The process results in large volumes of acidic discharge water, but while regulations are focused on sulphur oxides removal and acidification, other pollutants e.g. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, metals and nitrogen oxides can be transferred from the exhausts to the washwater and discharged to the marine environment. The aim of the current study was to investigate how different treatments of scrubber discharge water (1, 3 and 10%) affect a natural Baltic Sea summer microplanktonic community. To resolve potential contribution of acidification from the total effect of the scrubber discharge water, “pH controls” were included where the pH of natural sea water was reduced to match the scrubber treatments. Biological effects (e.g. microplankton species composition, biovolume and primary productivity) and chemical parameters (e.g. pH and alkalinity) were monitored and analysed during 14 days of exposure. Significant effects were observed in the 3% scrubber treatment, with more than 20% increase in total biovolume of microplankton compared to the control group, and an even greater effect in the 10% scrubber treatment. Group-specific impacts were recorded where diatoms, flagellates incertae sedis, chlorophytes and ciliates increased in biovolume with increasing concentrations of scrubber water while no effect was recorded for cyanobacteria. In contrast, these effects was not observed in the “pH controls”, a suggestion that other parameters/stressors in the scrubber water were responsible for the observed effects.
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| 41. |
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| 42. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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Environmental impacts of grey water discharge from ships in the Baltic Sea
- 2020
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Ingår i: Marine Pollution Bulletin. - : Elsevier BV. - 0025-326X .- 1879-3363. ; 152
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Discharge of grey water from ships is today unregulated in most sea areas, including the Baltic Sea. Annually, an estimated 5.5 million m3 grey water is emitted to the Baltic Sea with largest contribution from RoPax (4.25 million m3) and cruise ships (0.65 million m3). In total 44 different contaminants in grey water was identified and sorted into the sub categories organic compounds (28) and metals (16). Zinc and copper had the highest average concentrations with yearly inputs of 2.8 tons (zinc) and 1.5 tons (copper). 159 tons of nitrogen and 26.4 tons of phosphorus were estimated to be discharged to the Baltic Sea annually. An environmental risk assessment of contaminants, performed at a shipping lane in the Baltic Sea, showed the risk for adverse effects from grey water to be low. Nitrogen and phosphorus input from grey water contributes to 0.25% of the exceedance of, for the Baltic Sea set, eutrophication target.
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| 43. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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Environmental risk assessment of using antifouling paints on pleasure crafts in European Union waters
- 2021
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Ingår i: Journal of Environmental Management. - : Elsevier BV. - 0301-4797 .- 1095-8630. ; 281
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The Authors To ensure sustainable use of antifouling paints, the European Union have developed a new environmental risk assessment tool, which a product must pass prior to its placement on the market. In this new tool, environmental concentrations are predicted based on estimated release rates of biocides to the aquatic environment and risk characterization ratios are calculated in regional spreadsheets. There are currently two methods in use to predict release rates of biocides; a calculation method and a laboratory method. These methods have been believed to overestimate environmental release of biocides and therefore fixed correction factors to reduce the release rate can be applied. An alternative method, known as the XRF method, has recently been developed and used to derive field release rates from antifouling paints. The aim of this study was to review the new environmental risk assessment tool and assess how the choice of release rate method and application of correction factors impact the approval of antifouling paint products. Eight coatings were environmentally risk assessed for usage in four European marine regions; Baltic, Baltic Transition, Atlantic and Mediterranean; by applying release rates of copper and zinc determined with the different methods. The results showed none of the coatings to pass the environmental risk assessment in the Baltic, Baltic Transition and the Mediterranean if field release rates were used. In contrast, most of the coatings passed if the correction factors were applied on the release rates obtained with the calculation or laboratory method. The results demonstrate the importance of release rate method choice on the outcome of antifouling product approval in EU. To reduce the impact of antifouling paints on the marine environment it is recommended that no correction factors should be allowed in the environmental risk assessment or preferably that site-specific field release rates are used. If the regulation in the European Union (and elsewhere) continues to allow correction factors, the pressure of biocides to the environment from leisure boating will result in degradation of marine ecosystems.
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| 44. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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Förbättrad riskbedömning av båtbottenfärger
- 2020
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Rapport (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- Ett obehandlat båtskrov riskerar att snabbt bli beväxt av tusentals olika växt- och djurarter. Detta så kallade påväxttryck varierar stort mellan olika vattenområden och är t.ex. lägre i Östersjön än vad det är i Kattegatt. Påväxten ökar friktionen mellan skrov och vatten vilket gör att båten går långsammare. För att bibehålla samma fart krävs en högre bränsleförbrukning vilket leder till ökade luftutsläpp. För att förhindra påväxt målas oftast fritidsbåtsskrov med giftig, biocidinnehållande båtbottenfärg, även kallade antifoulingfärg. Dessa färger är designade att läcka biocider till det omgivande vattnet och skapar därigenom en hög koncentration av biociden vid gränsskiktet mellan skrov och vatten vilket förhindrar att påväxtorganismer kan fästa till båtskrovet. Färger som innehåller och läcker biocider måste tillståndsprövas innan de får lanseras på marknaden inom Europeiska Unionen (EU). I denna tillståndsprövning måste färgtillverkaren genomföra en miljöriskbedömning av färgen för att visa att läckaget av biocider inte ger oacceptabla risker för miljön. Vid miljöriskbedömningen är läckagehastigheten av biocider från färg till vatten den viktigaste parametern, vilken styr om produkten kommer få ett godkännande för användning eller ej. I dagsläget används två olika standardiserade tekniker för att bestämma läckagehastigheter, en laborativ och en matematisk. Vid en jämförelse med andra fältmetoder har dock dessa metoder visat sig ha begränsad förmåga att prediktera läckagehastigheter. Med en ny metod, baserad på röntgenflourescens (XRF), kan läckagehastigheter från olika färger bestämmas på ett snabbt och enkelt sätt. Genom att måla paneler med färger innehållande olika koncentrationer av koppar och zink kan metoden först användas för att mäta mängd metaller som finns i det målade färgskiktet. Därefter kan panelen antingen sänkas ned i olika hamnar eller fästas på skrov och efter en viss tid i vatten åter analyseras med XRF. Genom att mäta med XRF-metoden före nedsänkandet och sedan efter en viss tid i vatten, får man information om hur mycket koppar och zink som läckt ut från färgen till havsmiljön.
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| 45. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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Metal and PAH loads from ships and boats, relative other sources, in the Baltic Sea
- 2022
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Ingår i: Marine Pollution Bulletin. - : Elsevier BV. - 0025-326X .- 1879-3363. ; 182
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The Baltic Sea is a sensitive environment that is affected by chemical pollution derived from multiple natural and anthropogenic sources. The overall aim of this study was to estimate the load of metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from shipping and leisure boating, relative other sources, to the Baltic Sea and to identify possible measures that could lead to major reductions in the loads of hazardous substances from maritime shipping and leisure boating. The use of copper-based antifouling paints, and operation of scrubbers in open loop mode, were the two most dominant identified sources of hazardous substances to the Baltic Sea. Open loop scrubbers accounted for 8.5 % of the total input of anthracene to the sea. More than a third of the total load of copper can be reduced if copper-free antifouling paints or other biocide-free antifouling strategies are used on ships and leisure boats.
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| 46. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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Mäta gifter på båtskrov
- 2016
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Ingår i: Havsutsikt.
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Tidskriftsartikel (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)
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| 47. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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New analytical application for metal determination in antifouling paints
- 2015
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Ingår i: Talanta. - : Elsevier BV. - 0039-9140 .- 1873-3573. ; 143, s. 121-126
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Despite the ban of applying TBT coatings on leisure boats in the late 80s, recent studies show an ongoing spread of TBT from leisure boats, particularly during hull cleaning events. Therefore, countries in EU have adopted expensive measures to clean this wash water. A more cost-efficient measure is to focus directly on the source, i.e. identify leisure boats with high concentrations of TBT and prescribe boat owners to remove the paint. We have developed a new antifouling paint application for a handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyzer to be used for identifying boats with high area concentrations (μg/cm2) of Sn (indication that the hull contains TBT paint residues). Copper and zinc are also included in the application since these metals are used in the vast majority of today's paints. A blind test with up to four layers of TBT-, copper- and zinc-based paints showed good correlation between XRF-measured area concentrations and chemically analyzed concentrations. Future usage of the applications involves identification of boat hulls in particular with high Sn concentrations and also with high Cu and Zn concentrations. This method has the potential to become a useful tool in regulatory management of existence and use of toxic elements on boat hulls.
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| 48. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980-
(författare)
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Release rates and toxicity of metals from anti-fouling paints and the role of chemical speciation
- 2011
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Doktorsavhandling (övrigt vetenskapligt/konstnärligt)abstract
- The aim of this doctoral thesis was to investigate and improve the risk assessment of anti-fouling paints. A new method, the Petri-dish method, was developed to determine release rates of copper and zinc from anti-fouling paints (Paper I). The release rates of zinc were substantially higher from the biocide-free leisure boat paints than from the biocide-leaching paints. In Paper II, the potential toxicity of paint leachates was assessed and the biocide-free paint proved to be the most toxic paint investigated. Zinc, a supposedly non-biocidal ingredient in copper-based and other antifouling paints, was found to contribute significantly to the observed toxicity of all leisure boat paints investigated. This means that risk assessment of an anti-fouling paint based on only the active biocidal ingredient in the formula is insufficient. A more holistic approach, based on hazard identification and dose-response assessment of anti-fouling paint leachate, with all ingredients taken into consideration, is recommended. This can be achieved by the Petri-dish method, which combines chemical analysis with ecotoxicological tests of paint leachates. In Paper III and IV, the effects of salinity and organic matter on copper bioaccumulation and toxicity to the red macroalga Ceramium tenuicorne were studied. Salinity had only a minor effect in ameliorating copper toxicity, whereas the organic matter concentration had a significant effect in reducing the bioavailability and hence copper toxicity at all salinities tested. Copper uptake and bioaccumulation by C. tenuicorne showed that the macroalga could access a sizeable fraction of organically-complexed copper in addition to Cu2+, when Cu2+ concentration to the cell membrane is diffusion limited. This observation implies that the setting of environmental quality standards (EQSs) for copper and other metals through the Biotic Ligand Model (BLM) is inappropriate in predicting copper uptake and hence toxicity to C. tenuicorne.
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| 49. |
- Ytreberg, Erik, 1980, et al.
(författare)
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XRF measurements of tin, copper and zinc in antifouling paints coated on leisure boats
- 2016
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Ingår i: Environmental Pollution. - : Elsevier BV. - 0269-7491 .- 1873-6424. ; 213, s. 594-599
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- Tributyltin (TBT) and other organotin compounds have been restricted for use on leisure boats since 1989 in the EU. Nonetheless, release of TBT is observed from leisure boats during hull maintenance work, such as pressure hosing. In this work, we used a handheld X-ray Fluorescence analyser (XRF) calibrated for antifouling paint matrixes to measure tin, copper and zinc in antifouling paints coated on leisure boats in Sweden. Our results show that over 10% of the leisure boats (n = 686) contain >400 mu g/cm(2) of tin in their antifouling coatings. For comparison, one layer (40 mu m dry film) of a TBT-paint equals approximate to 800 mu g Sn/cm(2). To our knowledge, tin has never been used in other forms than organotin (OT) in antifouling paints. Thus, even though the XRF analysis does not provide any information on the speciation of tin, the high concentrations indicate that these leisure boats still have OT coatings present on their hull. On several leisure boats we performed additional XRF measurements by progressively scraping off the top coatings and analysing each underlying layer. The XRF data show that when tin is detected, it is most likely present in coatings close to the hull with several layers of other coatings on top. Thus, leaching of OT compounds from the hull into the water is presumed to be negligible. The risk for environmental impacts arises during maintenance work such as scraping, blasting and high pressure hosing activities. The data also show that many boat owners apply excessive paint layers when following paint manufacturers recommendations. Moreover, high loads of copper were detected even on boats sailing in freshwater, despite the more than 20 year old ban, which poses an environmental risk that has not been addressed until now.
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