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- Klionsky, Daniel J., et al.
(författare)
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Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy
- 2012
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Ingår i: Autophagy. - : Informa UK Limited. - 1554-8635 .- 1554-8627. ; 8:4, s. 445-544
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Forskningsöversikt (refereegranskat)abstract
- In 2008 we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, research on this topic has continued to accelerate, and many new scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Accordingly, it is important to update these guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Various reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose. Nevertheless, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. A key point that needs to be emphasized is that there is a difference between measurements that monitor the numbers or volume of autophagic elements (e.g., autophagosomes or autolysosomes) at any stage of the autophagic process vs. those that measure flux through the autophagy pathway (i.e., the complete process); thus, a block in macroautophagy that results in autophagosome accumulation needs to be differentiated from stimuli that result in increased autophagic activity, defined as increased autophagy induction coupled with increased delivery to, and degradation within, lysosomes (in most higher eukaryotes and some protists such as Dictyostelium) or the vacuole (in plants and fungi). In other words, it is especially important that investigators new to the field understand that the appearance of more autophagosomes does not necessarily equate with more autophagy. In fact, in many cases, autophagosomes accumulate because of a block in trafficking to lysosomes without a concomitant change in autophagosome biogenesis, whereas an increase in autolysosomes may reflect a reduction in degradative activity. Here, we present a set of guidelines for the selection and interpretation of methods for use by investigators who aim to examine macroautophagy and related processes, as well as for reviewers who need to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of papers that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a formulaic set of rules, because the appropriate assays depend in part on the question being asked and the system being used. In addition, we emphasize that no individual assay is guaranteed to be the most appropriate one in every situation, and we strongly recommend the use of multiple assays to monitor autophagy. In these guidelines, we consider these various methods of assessing autophagy and what information can, or cannot, be obtained from them. Finally, by discussing the merits and limits of particular autophagy assays, we hope to encourage technical innovation in the field.
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| 3. |
- Angus-Dunne, Sarah, et al.
(författare)
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Synthesis and Crystal Structure of the Palladium(IV) Polyoxomolybdate, K0 75Na3 75[PdMo6O24H3 5]center dot 17H(2)O
- 2010
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Ingår i: Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeines Chemie. - : Wiley. - 0044-2313 .- 1521-3749. ; 636:5, s. 727-734
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Tidskriftsartikel (refereegranskat)abstract
- The first example of a heteropolyoxomolybdate containing palladium(IV) was isolated and characterized by X ray crystallography The palladium(IV) hexamolybdate, K0 75Na3 75[PdMo6O24H3 (5)] 17H(2)O, was isolated from an aqueous solution at pH 4 5 in the space group P (1) over bar a 10 790(2) b 12 244(3), c 14 086(3) angstrom, alpha 113 77(1), beta 90 41(1) gamma 107 86(1)degrees and the structure was determined using X ray diffraction methods refining to a residual of 0 0301 for 5334 reflections A formal [PdMo6O24H3](5-) subunit exhibits the basic Anderson structure with two [PdMo6O24H3](5-) cluster anions in the structure bridged by a hydrogen atom (formally an H+) situated on a center of symmetry to give a [Pd2Mo12O48H7](9-) dimeric anion The palladium(IV) atom occupies a slightly distorted octahedral environment with Pd-O distances ranging from 1 968 to 2 009 angstrom.
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